Which is the fastest moving bacteria and what is its speed? (1) Spirillum serpens is a gram negative bacteria which possess amphitrichous flagella. It rotates at a rate of 2400 r/min, body rotates at 800 rpm. Estimated speed of is 50 micrometer/sec. (2) The rod shaped, gram negative bacillus,Bellovibrio bacteriovorus possess polar flagellum. It rotates 100 times/sec and can move 50 times its own length of 2 micrometer/sec. Estimated speed is 100 micrometer/sec. (3) Vibrio comma is a gram negative, comma shaped bacterium. It is a polar fllagelate and estimated speed is 200 micrometer/sec. Hence it is the fastest moving bacteria.
Bacteria can reach speeds from 2 microns per second ( beggiatoa, a gliding bacteria) to 200 microns per second ( vibrio comma, polar bacteria ). Speed varies with type of bacteria, but flagellates are undoubtedly faster than gliders.
Hiral Shah (18MBT028) Give an example of prey preadator relationship in context to Microbial ecology. (1) Relationship between Tetrahymena pyriformis,a predator protozoan, and Klebsiella pneumonia a prey bacterium. In the relationship between Tetrahymena and Klebsiella, natural selection within the predator-prey system increases the efficiency of the predator in finding and engulfing its prey and also favors those individual prey that escape predation. As the prey population is consumed, there is selection for small predators. Bacterial population under strong predatory pressure cease to produce capsules, enabling the bacterial population to grow more rapidly and adhere to solid surface. Coexistence is dependent on the ability of prey to find refuge. It may result from the environmental heterogenecity.
(2) Ciliate, Flagellate and amoeboid protozoa are predators. Bacterial population - Prey. (3) Didinium nasutum is predator. Paramecium caudatum is prey. (4) Paramecium bursaria - Predator. Schizosacchromyces pombe - Prey.
The doctor who went to the cannibals to aware them regarding the disease “kuru” caused due to the practicing of cannibalism (esp. due to eating brain) and he also even collected the brain tissues from them: Dr. Michael Philip Alper
-Imagine what happen if no microorganism present on earth. - gnotobiotic animals(germ free animals) - We’d be still digesting food – with some digestive disorders and of course lacking the vitamins we get from bacteria. -Microbes play a very vital role in our lives, right from maintaining life on earth to fixing gases and breaking down dead plants and animals into simpler substances that are used at the beginning of our food chain. -Waste would accumulate indefinitely.If there aren't any microbes to break down complex compounds into their usable components, all of this "stuff" is going to build up. [18mbt014]
What is the situation if all the microorganisms will disappeared or not in existence ? - there are some major impact they will make if microbes are vanishes or disappeared from earth: No food to eat: as such food Chain contain microorganisms in the most base of it No plant can survive without microbes and thus within a year or so we will die. No oxygen to breath :as plants doesn't exist anymore, There would be no conversation of Co2 into o2 And thus depleting the oxygen we breath and some Cynobacteria contain chloroplast within them Self's so they are also the major producers of oxygen. Earth will stink so soon :without the help of the microorganisms even the normal paper takes 15 days to degrade which has nomal chains Of simple lignin in it but if microbes act on that this can be completed within 3 days. So now we might imagine what would be the condition.
Q-1 imagine if there is no microorganisms on earth?
if we talk about origin of life then all multicellular organisms are evoluted from the unicellular organisms. so might be possible there were no human life originated if there were no unicellular microorganisms.
now if we talk about present then many organisms are live in gut or intestine of human they are help in digestion of food or help to produce some vitamins. Also many microorganisms help to fix nitrogen in plants and by that nitrogen,oxygen,carbon are regulate and maintain in atmosphere. Microorganisms allow to degrade dead plants and animal that help to regulate the food chain. Many human population die by microbial infections so ultimately its help in maintain human population.
So, without microorganisms humans do not survive for longer.
Que: what happen if microorganisms are eridicated from the world Ans:As Louis Pasteur once said, "Life would not long remain possible in the absence of microbes."
Role of microorganisms in the evolution of animals and plants: the hologenome theory of evolution. The hologenome is defined as the sum of the genetic information of the host and its microbiota. The theory is based on four generalizations: (1) All animals and plants establish symbiotic relationships with microorganisms. (2) Symbiotic microorganisms are transmitted between generations. (3) The association between host and symbionts affects the fitness of the holobiont within its environment. (4) Variation in the hologenome can be brought about by changes in either the host or the microbiota genomes; under environmental stress, the symbiotic microbial community can change rapidly. These points taken together suggest that the genetic wealth of diverse microbial symbionts can play an important role both in adaptation and in evolution of higher organisms. And now it disrupt whole system of globe as well as human Microorganisms play an important role in our life: helps us to digest our food, decompose wastes and participate in various cycles. They are diverse and have adapted to inhabit different environments including extreme conditions, such as hot vents under the ocean to the ice caps; known as extremophiles. There are more microorganisms present in us than there are cells, and the various microorganisms are bacteria, viruses, fungi and protozoa. Moreover, microorganisms digest harmful chemicals, such as pollutants and chemical wastes produced by the industry through a process known as bioremediation. gut microbiome (the microorganisms living in your digestive tract) plays an import role in digesting food, especially food containing cellulose. The gut microbiome is also believed to play an important role in the immune system. Applications of microorganisms in the food industry, mainly in the production of dairy products are another example where microorganisms are beneficial to humans. So these is the importance of microorganisms in our life so i think without it we will not survive. 18mbt040
Que : Imagine what would happen when there are no microorganisms on earth. And : Starting with evolution of life on earth, life emerged 3.8 billion years ago initially with unicellular organisms such as bacteria while multicellular organisms evolved over a billion years later. Microorganisms are everywhere ie. On skin, in mouth, in gut, in water, in soil, air, etc. They are responsible for many essential activities like recycling of waste, help plants for photosynthesis, converting the nutrients into Consumable form, etc. Microorganisms have a huge diversity compared to any others in ecosystem.
If microorganisms diminish from nature then 1) The nutrients won't be produced and cycled. Eg. A plant survives via photosynthesis in which O2 is made available to the environment for other organisms. Plants would die due to lack of photosynthesis. Also the living organisms won't be able to uptake nutrients or create nutrients on their own without microbes. 2) Waste would not be recycled and will get accumulated. 3) Animals like Ruminants which depend on gut microbes for degradation of cellulose as they cannot degrade cellulose by themselves will die out of starvation if microbes are absent. 4) Also the soil without microbes is of no use for the plant. Eg. For leguminous plants, there is a symbiotic relationship between nitrogen fixing bacteria and the plant. So without nitrogen fixing bacteria leguminous cannot fix nitrogen and so eventually the plant dies. 5) Also the oceans become stagnant. This are few points which shows that without microorganisms, one cannot survive.
Talking about present situation is that bacteria are useful in fermentation process(baking industry, alcohol industry, etc.), as antibiotics(as medicine against bacterial infection), for food preserving, etc. Microorganisms are also beneficial for the body Eg. Lactobacillus in curd is very helpful for digestion.
Question:-Imagine if there is no microorganisms on earth?
Answer:-》If you could wave a magic wand and remove all microbes from Earth - all viruses, bacteria, fungi, anything you could call a "germ" or a "bug" - then naturally all infectious diseases would vanish. ▪No Ebola! No common colds! No yeast infections! ▪This may seem like the best thing ever to happen to humans, but as you'll eventually see, the loss of microbes would have dire consequences for humans, animals, plants, and the environment - stuff that makes a stomach bug or the flu pale in comparison. 》Life depends upon the constant cycling and recycling of the basic elements of life. ▪A plant, for example, survives via photosynthesis on water (hydrogen and oxygen), sunlight (to convert water and carbon dioxide into sugar), and a host of other elements like nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium. All of these basic chemicals are taken in from the environment and recycled back to the Earth after they're consumed. ▪A loss of all microbes would be terrible news for living organisms that can't create or take in these essential nutrients on their own. 》If there aren't any microbes to break down complex compounds into their usable components, all of this "stuff" is going to build up. ▪As we've learned, plants are reliant upon bacteria to survive. ▪ If they don't have microbes to take in and convert important chemical compounds into usable parts, they'll rapidly lose to ability to produce fuel via photosynthesis and will quickly die. 》Ruminant animals can't digest cellulose, the main compound that makes up plant cell walls, on their own. They rely on gut microbes that can break down cellulose, allowing the animal to digest and absorb the nutrients from the plant. ▪A loss of microbes would mean that they'd starve. ▪ And this assumes that there are plants to eat in the first place. Again, a loss of microbes entirely would mean that there would be no plants for them to eat at all. 》If plants completely lose their ability to take in nitrogen in a usable form, for example, then we can "fix" it for them by fertilizing plants by hand. However, this would ultimately lead to rapid global warming from increased animal respiration and use of fossil fuels, the study points out, eventually choking our oceans and soils of any sustainable life. 》 In the end, we'd survive for a period of time without microbes, but not indefinitely. 》 "Humans and other animals (e.g., insects) would survive for a time, decades or centuries even," the study authors write in the paper, "but long-term survival of most eukaryotes would be doubtful."
Hiral Shah (18MBT028) Imagine the situation of Earth without microorganism. As correctly said by Louis Pasteur ,"Life would not long remain possible in the absence of micobes."
Microorganisms are the oldest inhabitants of the Earth. They have been here since 3.6 billion years ago. If there were no microbes, there would have not been any EVOLUTION and hence no VARIATIONS and no different types of life forms on Earth.
Talking about the present condition of Earth without microbes, survival of most Eukaryotes would be doubtful. 1) Germ free existence. 2) No biogeochemical cycling of nutrients. Rapid exhaustion of available macronutrients and micronutrients in terrestrial and aquatic environment. 3) Fungal decomposition would become the critical link between organisms death ,decay and return of decomposed nutrients to bottom of eukaryotic food chains. So most species on Earth would become extinct and population size would be reduced greatly for the species that endured. 4) we could digest our food as gnotobiotic animals, assimilating most of what we have consumed. 5) Imbalance in Ecosystem ,Food chain and Food web. 6) Absence of all forms of microbial disease including Ebola, Malaria, common cold, AIDS, and many more. 7) Human and animal waste would accumulate rapidly. There would be very little decomposition apart from dissociation and inherent catabolic enzymatic activity. It will lead to Soil and Water pollution. 8) Most ruminant livestock would starve without microbial symbionts. Plants would rapidly deplete Nitrogen, cease photosynthesis and then die. An alternative to it is to provide synthetic Nitrogen rich fertilizers. But it would lead to Global warming and pollution. Hence, concluding that Microbes sustain life on this planet because of myriad associations and biogeochemical processes. Although life would persist in the absence of microorganisms, both the quantity and quality of life would be reduced drastically.
Que: what happens if all microbes were removed from the earth?
Ans: Microbes plays a major role in our daily life, If all microbes were to disappear, the future of life on the planet would parallel a world without Bacteria and Archea, a Bacteria- and Archaea-free world, most biogeochemical cycling would cease; human and animal waste would accumulate rapidly. There would be very little decomposition apart from disassociation and inherent catabolic enzymatic activity. The essential role that microbes play in biomass recycling would not be served even by fungi or protists, resulting in a rapid exhaustion of available macronutrients and micronutrients in terrestrial and aquatic environments. Living food sources would be increasingly difficult to find. most ruminant livestock would starve without microbial symbionts, and plants would rapidly deplete nitrogen, cease photosynthesis, and then die. Intensive human intervention required to produce and distribute sufficient vitamins, plant fertilizers, and food sources would likely overwhelm ingenuity in the face of mounting environmental, ecological, and humanitarian disaster.
Q) Imagine what would happen if there are no microorganisms? Ans: Microbes are the most oldest inhabitants on this planet. As they came 3.6 billion years ago. If at the time of evolution there had been no microbes, then there would have been no phrase such as Evolution and no possible Variation would have been seen on this planet. If suppose in the present time there were no microorganisms present: 1] The level of oxygen in the atmosphere would get depleted.As,phytoplanktons produce 50% of oxygen in the atmosphere . 2] The decomposition of the dead plants,animals and other matters will not be possible. 3] The plants would not be able to undergo the process of photosynthesis which will cause a imbalance the Food chain and Food web. 4] The nitrogen fixation would not happen and thus, the plants won't be able to grow. Q) Why are scientists not talking about the nitrogen fixing bacteria anymore? Ans:A technique has been developed of putting nitrogen-fixing bacteria into the cells of plant roots. The major breakthrough came when a specific strain of nitrogen-fixing bacteria was found in sugar-cane which discovered could intracellularly colonise all major crop plants. This ground-breaking development potentially provides every cell in the plant with the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen. The implications for agriculture are enormous as this new technology can provide much of the plant's nitrogen needs.
Read more at: https://phys.org/news/2013-07-world-technology-enables-crops-nitrogen.html#jCp
Why nitrogen fixing plants cannot be produced by genetic engineering? The critical enzyme involved in Nitrogen fixation is NITROGENASE. Nitrogenase is consists of two metalloproteins: 1) Fe (Azoferrodoxin). 2) Fe-Mo protein (Molybdoferrodoxin).
Nitrogen Fixation is carried out by three groups of gene: a) Nod gene- Responsible for nodule formation. b) Nif gene- Responsible for Nitrogen fixation. c) Hup gene- Responsible for Nitrogen uptake. These genes are present in a group on a single chromosome.This makes their copying and transfer mechanism simple for Genetic engineering purpose.
Nitrogen fixing plants cannot be produced by genetic engineering due to following reasons: 1)Nitrogenase component proteins are extremely oxygen sensitive and are irreversibly denatured by oxygen. So it will be necessary to either provide an anaerobic environment to the enzyme or protect it from oxygen damage. Free living Diazotrophs achieve the latter by a variety of different strategies, including "respiratory", "conformational" and "auto" protection. However plants do not possess any such mechanism.
2) Nitrogen Fixation is an energy intensive process and requires a suitable reductant to support Electron Transport to Nitrogenase. Fortunately, photosynthetically generated ATP and NADPH are plentiful in Chloroplast, the energy demands of nitrogenase may compete with the demand of photosynthate provided by Calvin cycle.
3) Though the mechanism of nodule formation is complex nod gene is responsible for nodule formation as well as host recognition and specificity.
4) Most of the cereal plants are monocots and any such effort to transfer such nif gene will revolutionize the yield, economics and environmental problems. But there are difficulties in transferring, integration and expression of a prokaryotic gene into a monocot.
5)Genetic complexity and fragility of nif regulation. It is difficult to target nif encoded polypeptides to the plastid from a nuclear located transgene. The low level of corresponding polypeptides in plant is a consequence of either poor translation of the message or protein degradation when transformed.
6) Another potential problem is the relative inefficiency of nitrogenase. Hence, we may have to obtain very high levels of expression inorder to achieve sufficient enzyme activity.
scientists not talking about the nitrogen fixing bacteria? A nitrogen fixation the conversion of atmospheric nitrogen into combined form such as ammonia through chemical and by biological action such as rhizobia. A Professor Edward cocking developed a technique of putting the nitrogen fixing bacteria in the plants roots. his major breakthrough came when he found the specific strain of nitrogen fixing bacteria in sugarcane which could intracellulary colonize in the crop plants. this provides every plant cell the ability to fix nitrogen which provides enormous amounts of nitrogen to the plants much of the plants nitrogen needs. leads to: 1)increased concentration of nitrous oxide leads to destruction of protective stratospheric zone 2)growing atmospheric concentration of nitric oxide a major contributor to acid rain 3)a weakening of the ability of plant communities to remove the heat trapping carbon dioxide from the air and store it roll no: 18mmb026
I found one of the major and primitive kind of disadvantage of a photosynthetic human!!!
Adults need ATP same as their own weight. To produce roughly 60kg of ATP, a typical adult woman therefore requires around 700g of glucose per day. Given the maximum known rates of photosynthesis in higher plants and assuming that the surface area of an adult woman’s skin is around 1.6 m2, a woman with green skin could produce a highly disappointing 1% of her daily demand for glucose through photosynthesis. So to meet her energy demands, a photosynthesising woman would have to have a lot more skin. Indeed, roughly a tennis court’s worth.
Certain groups of prokaryotes obtain their energy from the oxidation of reduced inorganic compounds such as sulfide, ammonia and hydrogen, and use carbon dioxide as carbon source. These organisms are called chemolithotrophs.
1) Chemolithotrophy is widespread in the two domains of prokaryotes: the Bacteria and the Archaea. Many chemolithotrophs use molecular oxygen as electron acceptor, but chemolithotrophy is also possible in the absence of oxygen. Nitrate, sulfate, elemental sulfur or carbon dioxide serves as electron acceptors for certain groups of chemolithotrophs. 2) Nitrification, or the oxidation of ammonia via nitrite to nitrate by chemolithotrophic bacteria, is a key process in the global nitrogen cycle. 3) Two types of anaerobic chemolithotrophs oxidize hydrogen with carbon dioxide as electron acceptor: methanogens and homoacetogens, producing methane and acetate, respectively. 4) Chemolithotrophs participate in the biogeochemical cycles of certain metals (iron, manganese) and metalloids (arsenic). 5) In some environments such as deep‐sea hydrothermal vents and certain underground caves, chemolithotrophic primary production driven by the oxidation of hydrogen sulfide provides the basis for the functioning of the ecosystem. As sunlight can't reach in such places, there is absence of phototrophs and hence no photosynthesis occurs. Hence, they serve as primary producers in such extreme environments. (8MBT028)
Why are accessory pigments necessary in photosystems?
Accessory pigments are light-absorbing compounds, found in photosynthetic organisms, that work in conjunction with chlorophyll a. Eg. carotenoids, phycobiliproteins, and chlorophylls b, c, and d. They are necessary because: A. They capture a wider spectrum of wavelengths of light. B. They donate electrons to the reaction center. C. They split water into hydrogen ions and oxygen. D. They conduct the carbon reactions of photosynthesis.
why different pigments require for photosynthesis in plants?
-Most photosynthetic organisms have a variety of different pigments,different pigments absorb different wavelength of light. so they can absorb energy from a wide range of wavelengths at a time. (18mbt014)
Q. Why accessory pigments are necessary in photosystems ?
Ans.. Accessory pigments are the light absorbing pigments which absorb and transfer the light ultimately to the the reaction center. Also the pigments absorb and dissipate excess light energy which prevents the photo-oxidation of chlorophyll. (18mbt012)
Q. What are the Ecological significance of Chemolithotrophs? Ans.. chemolithotrophic prokaryotes include nitrification (the formation of nitrate from ammonia), production of sulfuric acid from sulfide and elemental sulfur, and the formation of methane from hydrogen and carbon dioxide. in short they are produce some product by their metabolism and that products are used by other organisms as their primary source of energy. so if there is no chemolithotrophs then product produce by them will be not form and other organisms will be not use that as their energy source. (18mbt012)
A.Just as there are a number of different electron donors (organic matter in organotrophs, inorganic matter in lithotrophs), there are a number of different electron acceptors, both organic and inorganic. If oxygen is available, it is invariably used as the terminal electron acceptor, because it generates the greatest Gibbs free energy change and produces the most energy. In anaerobic environments, different electron acceptors are used, including nitrate, nitrite, ferric iron, sulfate, carbon dioxide, and small organic molecules such as fumarate. Since electron transport chains are redox processes, they can be described as the sum of two redox pairs. For example, the mitochondrial electron transport chain can be described as the sum of the NAD+/NADH redox pair and the O2/H2O redox pair. NADH is the electron donor and O2 is the electron acceptor. Not every donor-acceptor combination is thermodynamically possible. The redox potential of the acceptor must be more positive than the redox potential of the donor. (18mbt014)
Different accessory pigments absorb different wavelengths of light. Carotenoids, the most common accessory pigments, absorb extra blue wavelengths. In addition to aiding in the creation of energy from photosynthesis, the carotenoids also protect chlorophyll a from damage from too much light radiation. Chlorophyll b, c and d, lycopene and phycobiliproteins are additional accessory pigments found in some plants.
Algae and cyanobacteria, a single-celled organism that lives in the water and uses photosynthesis, contain many accessory pigments to maximize energy production in their water habitats. Phycobiliproteins allow these water organisms to absorb most wavelengths of light, including much of the green range. Many species of algae and other water plants have red or yellow coloring due to their unique accessory pigments that absorb the wavelengths of light that travel best through the water. The specific accessory pigments found in a water plants help scientists determine the characteristics of the plant's natural ecosystem.
Que. Clinical Significance of lactic acid producing bacteria. Ans.In patient with short bowel syndrome(SBS), intestinal microbiota is an important factor influencing clinical outcome.An increase in D-lactate-producing bacteria can lead to D-lactic acidosis also called D-lactate encephalopathy causing severe neurological impairment. (18mmb022)
Q.What is CO2 fixation ? Ans.CO2 fixation or carbon assimilation is process of converting inorganic carbon to organic carbon majorly by the means of photosynthesis. 18MMB029
Directly observed treatment, short-course (DOTS, also known as TB-DOTS) is the name given to the tuberculosis (TB) control strategy recommended by the World Health Organization.DOTS-Plus is for multi-drug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB). According to WHO, "The most cost-effective way to stop the spread of TB in communities with a high incidence is by curing it. The best curative method for TB is known as DOTS. with DOTS treatment services in 1990 approximately 60% have been benefited from this care. Since 1995, 41 million people have been successfully treated and up to 6 million lives saved through DOTS and the Stop TB Strategy. 5.8 million TB cases were notified through DOTS programs in 2009. 18MBT014
DOTS: Directly observed treatment.DOTS is the WHO recommended for TB control.DOTS involve treatment with four drugs regimen isonicotinylhydrazide(INH),Pyrazinamide(PZA),ethambutol(EMB)and rifampin (RIF) for 6-9 months. DOTS must be used throughout the entire course therapy for best cure rates. 18mmb026
DOTS or Directly Observed Treatment Short course is the internationally recommended strategy for TB control that has been recognized as a highly efficient and cost-effective strategy. DOTS comprises five components.
1. Sustained political and financial commitment. TB can be cured and the epidemic reversed if adequate resources and administrative support for TB control are provided
2.Diagnosis by quality ensured sputum-smear microscopy. Chest symptomatic examined this way helps to reliably find infectious patients
3.Standardized short-course anti-TB treatment (SCC) given under direct and supportive observation (DOT).Helps to ensure the right drugs are taken at the right time for the full duration of treatment.
4. A regular, uninterrupted supply of high quality anti-TB drugs. Ensures that a credible national TB program does not have to turn anyone away.
5. Standardized recording and reporting. Helps to keep track of each individual patient and to monitor overall program performance. (18mbt012)
Question. How cannibalism leads to Kuru disease? Answer: 1. Kuru is generally defined as a rare, incurable neurodegenrative disorder that was formerly common among the Fore people of Papua New Guinea. The name Kuru means to "shiver" or " trembling in fear". 2. Kuru is caused by the transmission of abnormally folded prions proteins (PrP) founded in contaminated human brain tisuues, which leads to symptoms such as tremors, loss of coordination and neurodegenration. 3. 'Cannibalism' is defined as the act of an individual of a species consuming all or parts of another individual of same species as food. 4. The Fore people Papua ritualistically cooked and consumed body parts of their family members following their death to symbolize respect and mourning. 5. As the brain is the organ enriched in the infection agent prion, women and children, who consumed brain and viscera, had much higher likelihood of being infected than man, who preferentially consumed muscles. The prions from infected individual enter the healthy individual and leads to neurodegenration disorder thus leading to Kuru disease. 6. Recently researchers at Medical research council discovered a naturally occurring variant of a prions protein in Papua population confers strong resistance to kuru. Question. What does nitrogen fixation means? Answer: • Nitrogen fixation is defined as a chemical process that converts atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia that is absorbed by organisms. • Atmospheric nitrogen is converted by the action of Diazotrophs which are a form of bacteria and archaea organism that grow without external form of nitrogen. They thrive in a low oxygen atmosphere where they feed on nitrogen, converting it into ammonium as a byproduct. Question. Name the non-fermenting bacteria? Answer: Non-fermenting bacteria mainly refers to group of bacteria that cannot catabolize glucose but may catabolize other sugars. Example of some non- fermentors: • Bordetella: a genus of small, gram negative coccobacilli of the phylum Proteobacteria that mainly infects humans. • Acinetobacter: is a genus of gram- negative bacteria belonging to Gammaproteobacteria exhibiting twitching motility. • Legionella: is a pathogenic group of Gram-negative bacteria that is responsible for causing pneumonia type illness called Legionnaires disease and flu like illness called Pontiac fever. • Stenotrophomonas: is a genus of gram-negative bacteria commonly found in soil.
Question. List of Research Institutes in India where viruses can be studied?? 1. The National Institute of Virology, Pune is an Indian Virology Research Institute, and one of the translation science cells part of Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR). It was established in the year 1952. Other Research institutes in India that are part of ICMR -Enterovirus Research Centre, Mumbai, Maharashtra. -National Institute of Cholera & Enteric Diseases, Kolkata, West Bengal. -National AIDS Research Institute, Pune, Maharashtra. 2. AIIMS, New Delhi. 3. National Center for Disease Control, New Delhi. -The Virology Institute of Kerala will be soon established by the Kerala Biotechnology Commission (KBC) and Pinarayi Vijayan Chief Minister of Kerala, will launch the project on December 4, 2018
18mbt025 Nidhi Patel Question. List of Research Institutes in India where viruses can be studied?? 1. The National Institute of Virology, Pune is an Indian Virology Research Institute, and one of the translation science cells part of Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR). It was established in the year 1952. Other Research institutes in India that are part of ICMR -Enterovirus Research Centre, Mumbai, Maharashtra. -National Institute of Cholera & Enteric Diseases, Kolkata, West Bengal. -National AIDS Research Institute, Pune, Maharashtra. 2. AIIMS, New Delhi. 3. National Center for Disease Control, New Delhi. -The Virology Institute of Kerala will be soon established by the Kerala Biotechnology Commission (KBC) and Pinarayi Vijayan Chief Minister of Kerala, will launch the project on December 4, 2018
Question: Why ate viruses not placed in the evolutionary tree? Answer: 1. In the phylogenetic tree, the characteristics of the members of the taxa are inherited from previous ancestors. Virus do not share any of the characteristics with cells neither is any gene shared by all viral lineages 2. .Viruses are polyphyletic they have many evolutionary origins while cellular life has a single commen origin. There are common protein motifs in viral capsids, but these have likely come about through convergent evolution or horizontal gene transfer. 3. The problem is that viruses move readily between diverse hosts and it cannot be proved that the early viruses appeared with the first cells. 4. Virus do not have inherited structure derived of a single common ancestors. 5. It has been argued that the existence of viral genomes encode proteins involved in energy, carbon and cellular metabolism indicates that viruses are ancestral to cells. But metabolic gene are not present in the ancestors of these viruses. This makes it more debatable that viruses predate cells. 6. Through out history, there have been many definition of life. Viruses do not connect in any of the criteria because of the lack of any form of energy, carbon and cannot replicate or evolve in any open region. They replicate within cells and evolve within cells. Thus without cells viruses are “inanimate complex organic matter”. Therefore viruses cannot be placed in the tree of life. 18MBT031
Question: How are viruses named? Answer: 1. Viruses can be named based on the first host cell that is found to be infected and the way how the damage is caused. (tobacco mosaic virus) 2. They can be named upon where they are first discovered geographically like Semliki forest virus, West Nile virus etc.. 3. They are named after the disease in which they are associated (Bovine Diarrhoea Virus, polio virus). 4. Based on the meaning in the language of the first people afflicted with the virus (onyonyong Virus). 5. Based on the name of the discoverer eg. Epstein-Barr Viruse, named after the two scientist who first identified the virus. 6. They can be named by numbers or letters for instance, SV40 is an abbreviation for simian vacuolating virus 40 or simian virus 40, a polyomavirus that is found in both monkeys and humans. It was named for the effect it produced on infected green monkey cells, which developed an unusual number of vacuoles.
The convention of viruses are quite complicated. So it have recently begun to be simplified by a taxonomy that is based upon the type of nucleic acid, structure of the virion and replication scheme.
18mbt042 Patel Krupa Question) virology research institute in india Ans) 1) The National Institute of Virology(1978)- one of the major Institutes of the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR). It was established at Pune, Maharashtra State in 1952 as Virus Research Centre (VRC) under the auspices of the ICMR and the Rockefeller Foundation (RF), USA.
2) Manipal Center for Virus Research. (Karnataka)
3) National center for disease control (Delhi) •Besides, the following ICMR Institutes also working on viruses: 1. Enterovirus Research Centre, Mumbai, Maharashtra 2. National Institute of Cholera & Enteric Diseases, Kolkata, West Bengal 3. National AIDS Research institute, Pune, Maharashtra 4. Virus Unit, Kolkata 5. Regional Medical Research Centre at Dibrugarh, Bhubaneswar, Jabalpur and Port Blair.
Ans- For the first 60 years of viruses discovery, there was no system for classifying viruses. Viruses may be named according to the associated diseases (poliovirus, rabies), the type of disease caused (murine leukemia virus), or the sites in the body affected or from which the virus was first isolated (rhinovirus, adenovirus). Some viruses are named for where they were first isolated (Sendai virus, Coxsackievirus), the scientists who discovered them (Epstein-Barr virus), or for the way people imagined they were contracted (dengue = ‘evil spirit’; influenza = ‘influence’ of bad air). Characteristics were to be used for the classification of all viruses are: 1. Nature of the nucleic acid in the virion 2. Symmetry of the protein shell 3. Presence or absence of a lipid membrane 4. Dimensions of the virion and capsid 5. Type of disease caused 6. Which animal and tissues are infected
Question:-What is the satellite virus & helper virus?
Answer:- 》A satellite is a subviral agent composed of nucleic acid that depends on the co-infection of a host cell with a helper virus for its replication.
Below some Example Of the satellite virus & helper virus respectively.
Sputnik virophage Zamilon virophage Mavirus virophage Organic Lake virophage
{ Virophages are small, double stranded DNA viral phages that require the co-infection of another virus. The co-infecting viruses are typically giant viruses. }
How viruses are named? Initially after viruses were discovered there was no system for classifying viruses. Consequently viruses were named haphazardly. Most of the vertebrate viruses have been named according to:
1) the associated diseases (poliovirus, rabies) 2)the type of disease caused (murine leukemia virus), 3)the sites in the body affected or from which the virus was first isolated (rhinovirus, adenovirus) 4)the places from where they were first isolated (Sendai virus, Coxsackievirus) 5) the scientists who discovered them (Epstein-Barr virus), or 6) due to common cultural perceptions e.g. influenza ‘influence’ of bad air or dengue ‘evil spirit’. (18MMB007)
Qts:- List of Virology Reaserch Institutes in India.
1. VRC [ Virus Reasech Centre] was redesignated as National Institute of Virology [NIV] -Pune 2. All India Institute Of India[AIIMS] .New Delhi The two existing Apex Institutes for viral investigations and research in the country are as follows:
ICMR’s National Institute of Virology at Pune, Maharashtra and its three field stations at Bangalore (Karnataka), Gorakhpur (U.P.) and Alappuzha (Kerala) National Centre for Diseases Control, Delhi under the Ministry of Health & Family Welfare. Besides, the following ICMR Institutes also working on viruses:
1. Enterovirus Research Centre, Mumbai, Maharashtra
2. National Institute of Cholera & Enteric Diseases, Kolkata, West Bengal
3. National AIDS Research institute, Pune, Maharashtra
4. Virus Unit, Kolkata
5. Regional Medical Research Centre at Dibrugarh, Bhubaneswar, Jabalpur and Port Blair.
WHAT IS CO2 FIXATION? ANS;- The process by which carbon from the atmosphere is converted into carbon compounds, such as carbohydrate susually in living organisms mainly in plants and algae, usually by photosynthesis. The most prominent example is photosynthesis, although chemosynthesis is another form of carbon fixation that can take place in the absence of sunlight.
QTS;- WHO FOUND KURU CAUSED BY CANNIBALISM BY VISTING VILLAGE? ANS;- Michael Alpers, linked kuru with cannibaism by living deep in New Guinea’s kuru heartland.
Shirley Lindenbaum, a medical anthropologist . Lindenbaum traveled from village to village mapping family trees so researchers could settle the issue of the causative agent of kuru.
Finally, after urging from researchers like Lindenbaum, biologists came around to the idea that the strange disease stemmed from eating dead people. The case was closed after a group at the U.S. National Institutes of Health injected infected human brain into chimpanzees, and watched symptoms of kuru develop in the animals months later. The group, which won a Nobel Prize for the findings, dubbed it a "slow virus."
But it wasn't a virus — or a bacterium, fungus, or parasite. It was an entirely new infectious agent, one that had no genetic material, could survive being boiled, and wasn't even alive.
At last it was found that the causative agent of KURU is sub viral entity PRIONS.
Pruteen Trade name for microbial protein produced by growing bacteria, Methylophilus methylotrophus, on methanol (derived from methane or natural gas); 70% protein in dry weight.
pruteen has been used as an animal feed.Cream coloured and odorless powder,Highly concentrated and digestible diet for farm animals.
Methylophilus Methylotropous :-Non-photosynthetic bacteria, Aerobic(need oxygen to grow) Require an organic carbon and energy source, together with source of nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur and the mineral elements for bacterial growth.
Cultivation of bacteria--Continuous Culture.The fresh medium flows into the fermenter continuously, and part of the medium in the reactor is withdrawn from the fermenter at the same flow rate of the inlet flow. Organic Carbon+ Nitrogen+ Mineral Nutrients+ Oxygen --> SCP+ CO2+ H2O+ Heat Their rapid growth Their short generation times; most can double their cell mass in 20 minutes to 2 hours. Capable of growing on a variety of raw materials, ranging from carbohydrates such as starch and sugars, to gaseous and liquid hydrocarbons such as methane and petroleum fractions, to petrochemicals such as methanol and ethanol. Suitable nitrogen sources for bacterial growth include ammonia, ammonium salts, urea, nitrates, and the organic nitrogen in wastes. A mineral nutrient supplement must be added to the bacterial culture medium to furnish nutrients that may not be present in natural waters in concentrations sufficient to support growth. Grow best in slightly acid to neutral pH in the range 5 to 7. Tolerate temperatures in the range 35 to 45 degrees C as heat is released during bacterial growth.
18mbt025 Nidhi Patel Single-cell proteins are the dried cells of microorganism, which are used as protein supplement in human foods or animal feeds. Mainly microorganisms like algae, fungi, yeast and bacteria, utilize inexpensive feedstock and wastes as sources of carbon and energy for growth to produce biomass, protein concentrate or amino acids. Since protein accounts for the quantitatively important part of the microbial cells, these microorganisms, also called single cell protein as natural protein concentrate. • With increase in population and worldwide protein shortage the use of microbial biomass as food and feed is more highlighted. • Although single cell protein has high nutritive value due to higher protein, vitamin, essential amino acids and lipid content, there is a doubt to be replaced to the conventional protein sources due to their high nucleic acid content and slower in digestibility. They also may be considered as foreign material by body, which may subsequently results in allergic reactions. • The single-cell protein produced by ICI from methanol and ammonia using M. methylotrophus was referred to as ICI Pruteen. This SCP was exclusively used for animal feeding. ICI invested a huge amount (around £40 million) in 1979 and installed a continuous culture system for SCP production. This was the world’s largest continuous airlift fermenter. Unfortunately, the plant could not be operated for long due to economic reasons. But in the Middle East, due to high availability and low cost of methanol, the production of SCP appeared to be attractive.
18mbt025 Nidhi Patel Virus classification is generally defined as the process of naming viruses and placing them into a taxonomic system. Viruses are mainly classified by phenotypic characteristics, such as 1. Morphology, geometrical shape of their capsid (often a helix or an icosahedron) or the virus's structure (e.g. presence or absence of a lipid envelope). 2. Nucleic acid type: • DNA viruses (divided into double-stranded DNA viruses and single-stranded DNA viruses), •RNA viruses (divided into positive-sense single-stranded RNA viruses, negative-sense single-stranded RNA viruses and the much less common double-stranded RNA viruses), •Reverse transcribing viruses (double-stranded reverse-transcribing DNA viruses and single-stranded reverse-transcribing RNA viruses including retroviruses). 3. Mode of replication 4. Host organisms they infect:animal viruses, plant viruses, fungal viruses, and bacteriophages (viruses infecting bacterium, which include the most complex viruses) 5. And the Type of Disease they cause. Currently, two main schemes are used for the classification of viruses: the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) system and Baltimore classification system, which places viruses into one of seven groups.
Metabolic engineering of Escherichia coli for de novo biosynthesis of vitamin B12
The only known source of vitamin B12 (adenosylcobalamin) is from bacteria and archaea. Here, using genetic and metabolic engineering, we generate an Escherichia coli strain that produces vitamin B12 via an engineered de novo aerobic biosynthetic pathway. In vitro and/or in vivo analysis of genes involved in adenosylcobinamide phosphate biosynthesis from Rhodobacter capsulatus suggest that the biosynthetic steps from co(II)byrinic acid a,c-diamide to adocobalamin are the same in both the aerobic and anaerobic pathways. Finally, we increase the vitamin B12 yield of a recombinant E. coli strain by more than ∼250-fold to 307.00 µg via metabolic engineering and optimization of fermentation conditions. Beyond our demonstration of E. coli as a microbial biosynthetic platform for vitamin B12 production, our study offers an encouraging example of how the several dozen proteins of a complex biosynthetic pathway can be transferred between organisms to facilitate industrial production.
18mbt025 Nidhi Patel List of Industrial Mirobial products. Microbes can be used for production of certain chemicals like enzymes. Enzymes are proteinaceous substances of biological origin which are capable of catalysing biochemical reactions without themselves undergoing any change.
1. Streptokinase (Tissue Plasminogen Activator or TPA): It is an enzyme obtained from the cultures of some haemolytic bacterium Streptococcus and modified genetically to function as clot buster. It has fibrinolytic effect. Therefore, it helps in clearing blood clots inside the blood vessels through dissolution of intravascular fibrin.
2. Amylases: They degrade starches. Amylases are obtained from Aspergillus, Rhizopus and Bacillus species. The enzymes are employed for: (i) Softening and sweetening of bread,
(ii) Production of alcoholic beverages (e.g., beer, whisky) from starchy materials,
(iii) Clearing of turbidity in juices caused by starch,
(iv) Separation and desizing of textile fibres.
3. Cyclosporin A It is an eleven membered cyclic oligopeptide obtained through fermentative activity of fungus Trichoderma polysporum. It has antifungal, anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive properties. It inhibits activation of T-cells and therefore, prevents rejection reactions in organ transplantation.
4. Statins: They are products of fermentation activity of yeast Monasciis purpureus which resemble mevalovate and are competitive inhibitors of p-hydroxy-p-methylglutaryl or HMG CoA reductase. This inhibits cholesterol synthesis. Statins are, therefore, used in lowering blood cholesterol, e.g., lovastatin, pravastatin, simvastatin.
Microorganisms can also be successfully used for the commercial production of many of the vitamins. Vitamins are important micronutrients that are often precursors to enzymes, which all living cells require to perform biochemical reactions. However, humans cannot produce many vitamins, so they have to be externally obtained by using vitamin‐producing microorganisms. The pseudo‐vitamins that are chemically produced, allow the production of foods with higher levels of vitamins that could reduce unwanted side effects. Probiotic bacteria, as well as commensal bacteria found in the human gut, such as Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium, can de novo synthesize and supply vitamins to human body. In humans, members of the gut microbiota are able to synthesize vitamin K, as well as most of the water‐soluble B vitamins,such as cobalamin, folates, pyridoxine, riboflavin, and thiamine.
• Vitamin B12 is commercially produced by fermentation. It was first obtained as a byproduct of Streptomyces fermentation in the production of certain antibiotics (streptomycin, chloramphenicol, or neomycin). High concentrations of vitamin B12 are detected in sewage-sludge solids. Examples of microorganism producing vitamin B 12 is Propionibacterium freudenreichii, Pseudomonas denitrificans, Bacillus megaterium and Streptomyces olivaceus. • Industrial production of riboflavin is mostly carried out with the organism, Ashbya gossypii by using simple sugars such as glucose and corn steep liquor. • The organisms Blakeslea trispora, Phycomyces blakesleeanus and Choanephora cucurbitarum are most frequently used for the production of β– carotene, etc.
Q) What is DOTS? And) DOTS stand for Directly Observed Treatment, Short Course. •DOTS, also known as TB-DOTS. •The technical strategy for DOTS was developed by Karel Styblo at the International Union against TB in the 1970s and 80s, primarily in Tanzania. •DOTS or Directly Observed Treatment Short course is the internationally recommended strategy for TB control that has been recognized as a highly efficient and cost-effective strategy.
•DOTS have five main components: 1)Government commitment (including political will at all levels, and establishment of a centralized and prioritized system of TB monitoring, recording and training). 2)Case detection by sputum smear microscopy. 3)Standardized treatment regimen directly of six to nine months observed by a healthcare worker or community health worker for at least the first two months. 4)Drug supply 5)A standardized recording and reporting system that allows assessment of treatment results.
•DOTS involved treatment with a four drug regimen. These were isoniazid (INH), Rifampicin (Rif), Prazinamide (PZA) and Ethambutol (EMB) for 6-9 months. •DOTS Plus refers to a DOTS program that adds components for MDR TB diagnosis, management, and treatment. The WHO-endorsed DOTS Plus program began in 2000. At that time, the Green Light Committee (GLC) was established to promote access to high quality second line drugs for appropriate use in TB control programs.
One type of bacteria, called Clostridium sporogenes, may actually be used to deliver drugs in cancer therapy it has the ability to target tumors.When spores of the bacterium are injected into patients they will only grow in oxygen-depleted environments i.e. grow in solid tumours, where a specific bacterial enzyme is produced. An anti-cancer drug is injected separately into the patient in an inactive 'pro-drug' form. When the pro-drug reaches the site of the tumour, the bacterial enzyme activates the drug, allowing it to destroy only the tumour cells. The researchers have introduced a gene for a much-improved version of the enzyme into the C. sporogenes DNA. The improved enzyme can now be produced in far greater quantities in the tumour than previous versions, and is more efficient at converting the pro-drug into its active form.If the approach is successfully combined with more traditional approaches this could increase our chances to treat cancerous tumours.
Ans: Environmental microbiology is the study of the composition and physiology of microbial communities in the environment. The environment in this case means the soil, water, air and sediments covering the planet and can also include the animals and plants that inhabit these areas. Environmental microbiology also includes the study of microorganisms that exist in artificial environments such as bioreactors.
Application of microbiology in Environment are as follows:
Oil Biodegradation:-
Petroleum oil is toxic and pollution of the environment by oil causes major ecological concern. Oil spills of coastal regions and the open sea are poorly containable and mitigation is difficult, however much of the oil can be eliminated by the hydrocarbon-degrading activities of microbial communities, in particular the hydrocarbonoclastic bacteria (HCB). These organisms can help remediate the ecological damage caused by oil pollution of marine habitats. HCB also have potential biotechnological applications in the areas of bioplastics and biocatalysis.
Degradation of Aromatic Compounds by Acinetobacter:-
Acinetobacter strains isolated from the environment are capable of the degradation of a wide range of aromatic compounds. The predominant route for the final stages of assimilation to central metabolites is through catechol or protocatechuate (3,4-dihydroxybenzoate) and the beta-ketoadipate pathway, and the diversity within the genus lies in the channelling of growth substrates, most of which are natural products of plant origin, into this pathway.
Analysis of Waste Biotreatment:-
Biotreatment, the processing of wastes using living organisms, is an environmentally friendly alternative to other options. Bioreactors have been designed to overcome the various limiting factors of biotreatment processes in highly controlled systems. This versatility in the design of bioreactors allows the treatment of a wide range of wastes under optimized conditions. It is vital to consider various microorganisms and a great number of analyses are often required.
Xanthomonas campestris is an aerobic, Gram-negative rod known to cause the black rot in plants. Host associated, over 20 different pathovars of X. campestris have been identified by their distinctive pathogenicity on a wide range of plants including crops and wild plants. In contrast to its effects in plants, xanthaan has no adverse effects when ingested by humans. Consequently, xanthan can be used as a thickener in foods, such as dairy products and salad dressing, and in cosmetics such as cold creams and shampoos. By pure culture fermentation, X. campestris can produce an extracellular polysaccharide known as xanthan gum that is commercially manufactured as a stabilizing agent used in many everyday products including salad dressing or toothpaste. X. campestris is a model organism for studying interactions between plant and bacteria. Due to the deficit in crops, further research of this bacteria is in progress in hopes of learning how to make plants resistant to this pathogen. X. campestris ferments a stabilizing agent called xanthan gum that is used in many everyday products. It was first commercially produced at Kelco Company, a major pharmaceutical company. This polysaccharide is an ingredient in products like Kraft French dressing, Weight Watchers food, Wonder Bread products, and more. From carbohydrate fermentation by X. campestris, xanthan gum’s pseudoplastic, easily blended characteristic allows it to be used as a thickener by increasing viscosity of a liquid. In addition, xanthan gum also prolongs oil and gas wells even after production. Either pumped into the ground or using high pressure sandblasting, mixing water and xanthan gum into the wells will help thicken the liquid to release crude products of oil and cut through rocks in gas and oil wells. Xanthan gum costs $7 per pound compared to cornstarch for 89 cents per pound.
application of microbes in bioremediation and few of the more common microbial products that are integral part of modern life:
bioremediation: using Microbes to Clean up Pollutants In 1988, scientists began using microbes to clean up pollutants and toxic wastes produced by various industrial processes. For example, some bacteria can actually use pollutants as energy sources; others produce enzymes that break down toxins into less harmful substances. By using bacteria in these ways—a process known as bioremediation—toxins can be removed from underground wells, chemical spills, toxic waste sites, and oil spills, such as the massive oil spill from a British Petroleum offshore drilling rig in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010 . In addition, bacterial enzymes are used in drain cleaners to remove clogs without adding harmful chemicals to the environment. In some cases, microorganisms indigenous to the environment are used; in others, genetically modified microbes are used. Among the most commonly used microbes are certain species of bacteria of the genera Pseudomonas and Bacillus. Bacillus enzymes are also used in household detergents to remove spots from clothing.
Biopolymers Biopolymers are microbially produced polymers, primarily polysaccharides, used to modify the flow characteristics of liquids and to serve as gelling agents. These are employed in many areas of the pharmaceutical and food industries. Biopolymers include (1) dextrans, which are used as blood expanders and absorbents; (2) Erwinia polysaccharides used in paints; (3) polyesters, derived from Pseudomonas oleovorans, which are used for specialty plastics; (4) cellulose microfibrils, produced by an Acetobacter strain, that serve as a food thickener; (5) polysaccharides such as scleroglucan used by the oil industry as drilling mud additives; and (6) xanthan polymers, which have a variety of applications as food additives as well to enhance oil by thickening drilling mud. This use of xanthan gum, produced by Xanthomonas campestris, represents a large market for this microbial product.
Biosurfactants: Biosurfactants are amphiphilic molecules; that is, they possess both hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions. Thus they partition at the interface between fluids that differ in polarity, such as oil and water. For this reason, they are used for emulsification, increasing detergency, wetting, and phase dispersion, as well as solubilization. These properties are especially important in bioremediation, oil spill dispersion, and enhanced oil recovery. The most widely used microbially produced biosurfactants are glycolipids. These are carbohydrates that bear long-chain aliphatic acids or hydroxy aliphatic acids. They can be isolated as extracellular products from a variety of microorganisms, including pseudomonads and yeasts.
Organic Acids Simply reading the ingredient list on most processed foods will illustrate the widespread use of the organic acids such as citric, acetic, and lactic acids. These acids are principally used as preservatives. Organic acid production illustrates how the concentration of trace elements can influence product yield Citric acid fermentation involves limiting the amounts of trace metals such as manganese and iron to stop Aspergillus niger growth at a specific point. The medium often is treated with ion exchange resins to ensure low and controlled concentrations of available metals. Generally, high sugar concentrations (15 to 18%) are used, and copper has been found to counteract the inhibition of citric acid production by iron. This reflects the regulation of glycolysis and the tricarboxylic acid cycle (recall that citric acid is a constituent of the TCA cycle). After the active growth phase, when the substrate level is high, citrate synthase activity increases and the activities of aconitase and isocitrate dehydrogenase decrease. This results in citric acid accumulation and excretion by the stressed microorganism.
It is an extract from the stomach of calf that contains enzyme rennin. Rennet or chymosin is now being obtained from Mucor and Endothio species. Withania and fig (ficin) also yield similar product.
2 Lactases:
They are obtained from Saccharomyces fragilis and Torula cremoris. The enzymes convert lactose (milk sugar) into lactic acid. Lactic, acid can coagulate milk protein, casein. Lactases prevent crystals formation (sandiness) in dairy preparations like ice-cream and processed cheese.
3. Streptokinase (Tissue Plasminogen Activator or TPA):
It is an enzyme obtained from the cultures of some haemolytic bacterium Streptococcus and modified genetically to function as clot buster. It has fibrinolytic effect. Therefore, it helps in clearing blood clots inside the blood vessels through dissolution of intravascular fibrin.
4. Pectinases:
They are obtained commercially from Byssochlamys fulvo. Along-with proteases, they are used in clearing of fruit juices. Other uses are in retting of fibres and preparation of green coffee.
5. Lipases:
They are lipid dissolving enzymes that are obtained from Candida lipolytica and Geotrichum candidum. Lipases are added in detergents for removing oily stains from laundry. They are also used in flavouring cheese.
MEDICINE:-
Species of the bacterial genus Streptomyces alone produce more than 500 different antibiotics, including cycloheximide, cycloserine, erythromycin, kanamycin, lincomycin, neomycin, nystatin, streptomycin, and tetracycline. Other antibiotics are made by Bacillus bacteria and fungi, such as Penecillium.
MAKING AND BREAKING DOWN BIODEGRADABLE PLASTICS:-
Most of the plastic used today is synthetically made from petroleum and is extremely resistant to degradation. The best kind of biodegradable plastics are the ones made by bacteria because they can also be broken down by bacteria. These contain either polylactide (PLA), made as a product of fermentation, or polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs), made by bacteria as storage compounds.
Unfortunately, biodegradable bacterially produced plastics haven’t yet been able to compete with the synthetically made ones because oil is still cheaper than the sugar needed to feed the bacteria.
Chemical Synthesis of amino acids and organic solvents can also be made using microbes. The synthesis of essential amino acids such as are L-Methionine, L-Lysine, L-Tryptophan and the non-essential amino acid L-Glutamic acid are used today mainly for feed, food, and pharmaceutical industries. The production of these amino acids is due to Corynebacterium glutamicum and fermentation. C.glutamicum was engineered to be able to produce L-lysine and L-Glutamic acid is large quantities. L-Glutamic acid had a high demand for production because this amino acid is used to produce Monosodium glutamate (MSG) a food flavoring agent. In 2012 the total production of L-Glutamic acid was 2.2 million tons and is produced using a submerged fermentation technique inoculated with C.glutamicum. L-Lysine was originally produced from diaminopimelic acid (DAP) by E.coli, but once the C.glutamicum was discovered for the production of L-Glutamic acid.This organism and other autotrophs were later modified to yield other amino acids such as lysine, aspartate, methionine, isoleucine and threonine. L-Lysine is used for the feeding of pigs and chicken, as well as to treat nutrient deficiency, increase energy in a patient, and sometimes used to treat viral infections. L-Tryptophan is also produced through fermentation and by Corynebacterium and E.coli, though the production is not as large as the rest of the amino acids it is still produced for pharmaceutical purposes since it can be converted and used to produce neurotransmitters.
Cyclosporin A was originally introduced as a narrow-spectrum antifungal peptide produced by the mold, Tolypocladium nivenum (originally classified as Trichoderma polysporum and later as Tolypocladium inflatum), by aerobic fermentation. They are used in heart, liver Other important transplant agents include sirolimus (rapamycin) and tacrolimus (FK506), which are produced by actinomycetes. Rapamycin is especially useful in kidney transplants as it lacks the nephrotoxicity seen with cyclosporin A and tacrolimus. It is a macrolide. Tacrolimus (FK506) was discovered in 1987 in Japan. It is produced by Streptomyces tsukubaensis. It was approximately 100 times more active as an immunosuppressive than cyclosporin A. It was approved by the FDA for use as an immunosuppressant in liver transplantation. Furthermore, its use has been extended to include bone marrow, cornea, heart, intestines, kidney, lung, pancreas, trachea, small bowel, skin and limb transplants and for the prevention of graft-vs-host disease. Topically, it is also used against atopic dermatitis, a widespread skin disease.
Microbes for irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is the most common functional gastrointestinal disorder that results in abdominal pain, altered bowel habits and irregular stool characteristics . Lactobacillus salivarius or Bifidobacterium infantis found significant improvements in typical IBS symptoms with the administration of probiotics. Commonly reported improvements were reductions in bloating, flatulence, speed of colonic transit and abdominal pain. Intestinal micro-organisms play various roles in human health such as complex food digestion, metabolizing drugs, detoxifying toxic compounds, producing essential vitamins and preventing colonization of pathogens. Most of the micro-organisms found in the GI tract are anaerobic bacteria, which are uncultivable under standard laboratory conditions. The type and number of bacteria in the GI tract varies depending on age, gender, geographical origin and environmental factors, such as diet and dietary supplements . Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes are the dominant beneficial bacteria present in the normal human GI tract, and the latter was reported in lower.
Microbes as source of anti-fungals
The pneumocandins have been successfully used to develop an antifungal drug that has been recently approved by the FDA. This semi-synthetic pneumocandin, caspofungin acetate, is an aza-substituted derivative of pneumocandin B0. Pneumocandins are natural products derived from the fermentation of the fungus Glarea lozoyensis . The introduction of additional amino groups in the peptide ring of pneumocandin B0 increased the solubility of the molecule and the potency against fungal pathogens by two orders of magnitude. The compound has been shown to be effective in animal models of disseminated candidiasis,aspergillosis,coccidiomycosis and pneumonia caused by Pneumocystis carinii. The clinical trials have demonstrated good tolerance of the compound and its efficacy in the treatment of oropharyngeal and oesophageal candidiasis, as well as in invasive aspergillosis. Cancidas has recently been approved by the FDA for use against invasive aspergillosis, refractory to, or tolerant of other therapies.
KRUPA S. PATEL 18MBT042 Question: Application of Microbiology. Ans: Industrial Application: Industrial Microbiology also plays an important role in the preservation of the environment. Hence, in many cases, Microbiology and environmental Biotechnology go hand in hand and both are interdependent on each other. 1. Fungal removal of pitch in paper pulp manufacturing • Extractives from wood and other lignocellulose material referred to as wood resin includes alkanes, fatty alcohols, fatty acids, resin acids, sterols, other terpenoids conjugated steroids and waxes. These lipophilic compounds cause the pitch deposits along the pulp and process of manufacturing papers. • Pre-treatment of the wood with fungi to degrade some of the wood extractives before pulping Basidiomycete fungi and Ophiostoma Species are widely used for this purpose. When applied to wood chip piles, this fungus has been particularly effective in degrading triglycerides and fatty acids in both soft woods and hard woods. • Result of this application 50% deduction in the pitch content of soft woods with less then of 5%loss of woody mass and effluent biotoxicity was reduced 11 to 14 fold compare with untreated controls. White rot basidiomycete to degrade the sterols esters and waxes. Environmental Application: 1. Bioremediation: - The other process of removing the toxic solid wastes in the land and water is bioremediation. Bioremediation involves the utilization of the indigenous microorganisms by enhancing their growth by the addition of specific nutrients in the soil and water in order to detoxify the wastes present in situ. The detection of microbes with the capacity to degrade various environmental pollutants is quite interesting for it can be used to treat the polluted environment (Bioremediation). The microbes used in bioremediation are either degraders by nature or genetically engineered to degrade the pollutants. Listed below are some of the microbes employed in bioremediation and the type of pollutant they act upon. Pseudomonas putida – Toluene, Naphthalene Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Actinobacteria, Cyanobacteria, Flavobacteria, Staphylococcacea – oil spills Dechloromonas aromatica – Aromatic compounds, perchlorate Acinetobacter – Aromatic compounds Nitrosomonas europaea, Nitrobacter hamburgensis, Paracoccus denitrificans – Acts on ammonia, nitrite and nitrate compounds Phanerochaete chrysosporium – Pesticides, Poly aromatic hydro carbons, dioxins, dyes, cyanides, nitro-based explosives Psudomonas Species (Pseudomonas A3, Pseudomonas putida, Pseudomonas aeruginosa) and Serratia marinorubra - Fungicide Deinococcus radiodurans – Heavy metals (This organism is genetically engineered to act upon ionic mercury based nuclear pollution). One of the research studies states the efficiency of species like Enterobacter, Stenotrophomonas, Chryseobacterium, Ochrobacterium in the removal of heavy metals like Copper, cadmium, cobalt and chromium respectively. Geobacter metallireducens – Uranium Bacillus species and Serratia merinorubra- Used to treat effluent from textile industries. These species acts upon the azo reactive dye present in the effluent and thus decolourizes the effluent. Trichoderma viride – Effluents from industries 2.Microbial Desulphurisation of coal: - The microbes are now being used for the desulphurization of the fuels like coal thus helping largely in the prevention of formation of pollutants like SO2, which are formed during the burning of coal. Upto 90% of removal of sulphur can be achieved.
18mbt026 Chemical application: Synthesis of amino acids and organic solvents can also be made using microbes. The synthesis of essential amino acids such as are L-Methionine, L-Lysine, L-Tryptophan and the non-essential amino acid L-Glutamic acid are used today mainly for feed, food, and pharmaceutical industries. The production of these amino acids is due to Corynebacterium glutamicum and fermentation.C.glutamicum was engineered to be able to produce L-lysine and L-Glutamic acid is large quantities.[8] L-Glutamic acid had a high demand for production because this amino acid is used to produce Monosodium glutamate (MSG) a food flavoring agent. In 2012 the total production of L-Glutamic acid was 2.2 million tons and is produced using a submerged fermentation technique inoculated with C.glutamicum. L-Lysine was originally produced from diaminopimelic acid (DAP) by E.coli, but once the C.glutamicum was discovered for the production of L-Glutamic acid.[8]This organism and other autotrophs were later modified to yield other amino acids such as lysine, aspartate, methionine, isoleucine and threonine.[8]L-Lysine is used for the feeding of pigs and chicken, as well as to treat nutrient deficiency, increase energy in a patient, and sometimes used to treat viral infections. L-Tryptophan is also produced through fermentation and byCorynebacterium and E.coli, though the production is not as large as the rest of the amino acids it is still produced for pharmaceutical purposes since it can be converted and used to produce neurotransmitters.[8]
The Archaeobacterium Halobacterium halobium grows in nature in solar evaporation ponds having high concentration of salts. Such salty ponds are found around San Francisco Bay located on the Western coast of USA.
It has been found that the plasma membrane of Halobacterium halobium fragments into two fractions, when the cell is broken down. These two fractions are red and purple. The purple fraction is important in making computer parts (chips). The purple colour is due to a protein which is 75% of purple membrane and has been referred to as bacteriorhodopsin.
Robert Birge at Syracuse University’s Centre of Molecular Electronics has grown Halobacerium halobium in 5-litre batches and has extracted the protein bacteriorhodopsin from the cells and developed the computer chips which are made up of a thin layer of bacteriorhodopsin.
The chips so made from the bacterial source can store more information than the conventional silicon chips and process the information faster more like a human brain. The only drawback is that one needs to store the protein chips at -4°C. But Birge believes that this problem will be overcome soon.
oily is a bacterium from the genus Alcanivorax Oily and others like oily may be used to help clean up some oil spills.When oily eats the oil it breaks down oil into relatively less harmful compounds.oily was all about dealing with oil extracted from the earth ,but it has brethren that are all about producing oil instead of munching it up and not just any oil.these is a biofuel.
treat waste water by microbial fuel cells
microbial fuel cell is used to treat waste water and generate electricity.microorganisms utilize substrate from waste water for their metabolism and produce electron and protons and water as end product.
microorganisms are also used in bioremediation studies.
Single-cell proteins are the dried cells of microorganism, which are used as protein supplement in human foods or animal feeds. Microorganisms like algae, fungi, yeast and bacteria, utilize inexpensive feedstock and wastes as sources of carbon and energy for growth to produce biomass, protein concentrate or amino acids. Since protein accounts for the quantitatively important part of the microbial cells, these microorganisms, also called single cell protein as natural protein concentrate. With increase in population and worldwide protein shortage the use of microbial biomass as food and feed is more highlighted. Although single cell protein has high nutritive value due to higher protein, vitamin, essential amino acids and lipid content, there is a doubt to be replaced to the conventional protein sources due to their high nucleic acid content and slower in digestibility. They also may be considered as foreign material by body, which may subsequently results in allergic reactions.
Yeast was the first microorganism whose importance as animal feed supplement was recognized almost a century ago. During World War I, Germany replaced half of imported protein sources by yeast. Pruteen was the first commercial single cell protein used as animal feed additive. From a nutritional viewpoint, Nucleic Acids (NA) content in SCP is one of the main factors hindering its utilization as food. Excessive intakes of NA lead to uric acid precipitation, causing health disorders, such as gout or kidney stone formation.
So, in human their NA contents must be reduced below 2%. Several technologies have been reported to reduce the NA content of microbial cells, including both chemical and enzymatic procedures. Chemical and enzymatic methods have disadvantages . Various microorganisms used for the production of SCP are bacteria (Cellulomonas, Alcaligenes, etc.), algae (Spirulina, Chlorella, etc.), molds (Trichoderma, Fusarium, Rhizopus, etc.) and yeast (Candida, Saccharomyces, etc.). Microorganisms can utilize a variety of substrate like agricultural wastes and effluents, industrial wastes, natural gas like methane, etc. that also help in decomposing pollutan
A variety of microorganisms and substrate are used to produce single cell proteins. Yeast is suitable for single cell protein production because of its superior nutritional quality . The supplementation cereals with single cell proteins, especially yeast, make them as good as animal proteins. The necessary factor considered for use of SCP is the demonstration of the absence of toxic and carcinogenic compounds originated from the substrates, biosynthesized by the microorganisms or formed during processing. High nucleic acid content and low cell wall digestibility are two of the most important factors limiting nutritional and toxicological value of yeast for animal or human consumption . As constituents of nucleic acid, purine compounds in human diet mostly metabolized to yield uric acid whose high concentration may lead to gout or renal stones. However, nucleic acid is not a toxic component and it causes only physiological effects at higher levels like any other essential dietary ingredients taken in larger amounts. It has been calculated that 100 lbs of yeast will produce 250 tons of proteins in 24 h. Algae grown in ponds can produce 20 tons (dry weight) of protein, per acre, per year.
Definition and Health benefits of Probiotics: The World Health Organization’s 2001 definition of probiotics is “live micro-organisms which, when administered in adequate amounts, confer health benefits on the host”.[1] This definition, although widely adopted, is not acceptable to the European Food Safety Authority because it embeds a health claim which is not measurable.[2] Etymologically, the term appears to be a composite of the Latin preposition pro (“for”) and the Greek βιωτικος(biotic), the latter deriving from the noun βιος (bios, “life”) [3]
Health benefits: Some digestive disease specialists are recommending the use of probiotic organisms to help in the treatment of disorders that frustrate conventional medicine, such as irritable bowel syndrome. Since the mid-1990s, clinical studies have established that probiotic therapy can help in the treatment of several gastrointestinal ills, may delay the development of allergies in children
Examples of Probiotic Organisms: There are hundreds of strains of probiotic bacteria. The most commonly used organisms include Lactobacillus sp. (such as L. acidophilus, L. casei, L. fermentum , L. rhamnosus) Bifidobacterium sp, (such as B. Bifidum, B. lactis and B. longum), Streptococcus thermophilus, Bacillus coagulans,and Enterococcus faecium.
Potency Testing: Probiotics offer a broad range of health benefits. As with any supplement, the efficacy of a probiotic depends on dosage. Essentially the titer of live organisms is the critical part in determining potency. Recommending an adequate dose for an individual patient requires clear knowledge of the potency of a product. Probiotic potency is specified as the numbers of viable cells of the beneficiary organism. Confidence in the accuracy of this number is essential for successful and consistent clinical results.
BioLumix Methodology for Potency Testing: A calibration curve is generated to easily relate the number of colony forming units determined using the plate count method to the detection times (DT) in the BioLumix instrument. These calibration curves are embedded into the instrument software and are used to access the number of probiotic organisms present in the product sample for individual organisms. An example is shown in the Graph for the Lactobacillus acidophilus. Currently, individual calibration curves are available for the following organisms: L. casei, L. acidophilus, L. rhamnosus, L. bulgarus, B. coagulans, B. longum, B. bifidum, E. feacalis, and S. thermophilus. The procedure used to test sample cultures involves a single 1:10,000 dilution of the sample followed by the addition of 0.1 ml to the appropriate test vial. Organism growth may occur rapidly, often in less than 24 hr, and the BioLumix instrument generates an estimate of the cfu per gram of sample. This is a much more rapid method than the traditional plate methods that often takes 3-7 days for Lactobacillus species. Using the BioLumix rapid method can be much less expensive than traditional plate methods for Lactobacillus species as these organisms often require specialty media under conditions of low oxygen (candle jars).
Microbial contamination: Good manufacturing Practices must be applied in the manufacture of probiotic containing products. Contamination of probiotic products with undesirable microorganisms is possible in uncontrolled fermentation and during handling. Therefore, most probiotic batches need to be tested for indicator organisms such as coliforms and to also show the absence of potentially harmful organisms such as E. coli, Staphylococcus and Salmonella.
BioLumix Methodology for Microbial Contamination: The BioLumix simplified automated system can detect indicator organisms and objectionable organisms, if present, in a fraction of the time of traditional methods, with significantly less hands-on time. The system offers a wide variety of rapid assays for samples, including assays to detect yeast & molds, coliforms, E. coli, Staphylococcus, Pseudomonas and Salmonella.
Applications of microorganisms in sewage treatment.
Biological wastewater treatments employ microorganisms to remove organic matter from water.Wastewater treatment plants depend heavily on the work of microorganisms.
Members of the Nitrosomonas genus is a gram negative bacterium responsible for the first stage of nitrification in sewage. They oxidize ammonium into nitrite. This bacterium has a optimum pH of 6-9 and nitrify optimally at 20-30°C.Members of the Nitrobacter genus is a gram negative bacterium responsible for the second stage of nitrification in the sewage. It oxidizes nitrite to nitrate using oxygen as a terminal electron acceptor. The bacteria has an optimum pH of 6~8, and an optimum temperature of 0~40°C. Members of Pseudomonas genus is a gram negative denitrifying bacteria that use the chemical energy in organic matter to reduce nitrate into dinitrogen gas. Also, members of the bacteroidetes phylum are the gram negative bacteria responsible for the anaerobic fermentation of the solid sludge.
Wastewater treatment can also provide a great source for alternative energy if the anaerobic bacteria are handled correctly.
Top Probiotic Foods Yogurt and kefir (dairy or plant-based) Sauerkraut Kimchi Kvass (a fermented beet drink) Natto Miso Kombucha Raw cheese from goat’s or sheep’s milk Any other naturally fermented food
Top Prebiotic Foods Asparagus Onions Garlic Leeks Raw honey Chicory root Jicama Barely ripe plantains and bananas Sprouted whole grains Seeds Berries
Benefits......
Bacillus subtilis: Helps fight autoimmune disease and leaky gut.
Saccharomyces boulardii: Helps treat acne and inflammatory bowel diseases (IBS).
Bifidobacterium infantis: Alleviates IBS symptoms, diarrhea, and constipation.
Bacillus coagulans: Improves nutrient absorption and reduces inflammation and symptoms of arthritis.
Bifidobacterium bifidum: Supports production of vitamins in the gut and prevents diarrhea.
Lactobacillus casei: Helps fight infections.
Lactobacillus acidophilus: Relieves gas and bloating and reduces lactose intolerance.
Applications of industrial microbiology 1.Soya sauce is prepared by mixing saoked and steamed soyabeans with crushed wheat and incoculating with Aspergillus soyae or Aspergillus oryzae. 2.Cephalosporins C is made as fermentation product of cephalosporin acremonium.
Many modern cheeses are made with preselected cultures, consisting of only a few types of microbe, but many traditional cheeses are inoculated using whey or other products from previous batches, which means that they can be made with dozens of types of microbe.
This microbial wealth is among the many reasons that traditional cheeses can be so much more complex than modern, controlled-inoculation cheeses.
Molds: Molds are multicellular filamentous fungi whose growth on foods is usually readily recognized by their fuzzy or cottony appearance. They are mainly responsible for food spoilage at room temperature 25- 30oC and low pH, and have minimum moisture requirement. Molds can rapidly grow on grains and corns when these products are stored under moist conditions. Molds require free oxygen for growth and hence grow on the surface of contaminated food.Only two species of blue mold, P. roquefortiand P. glaucum, give rise to the unique flavor and texture of the hundreds of blue cheese which are revered throughout the world.White molds, which are found on the outside of all types of soft-ripened cheeses, are subspecies of P. camembertii (also called P. candidum). Molds also find their use in manufacturing of different foods and food products. They are used in ripening of various types of food products as cheese (e.g. Roquefort,Camembert). Propionic Acid Bacteria: These bacteria, and specifically Propionobacter shermanii, are able to digest acetic acid and convert it to sharp, sweaty-smelling propionic acid and carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide is what gives Emmental and other Swiss cheeses their characteristic "holes", and the propionic acid contributes to their complex, especially sharp bouquet. Interestingly, several species of propionibacteria inhabit human skin, and help produce "unwashed" odors.
Smear bacteria: The most notorious are the smear bacteria, which are responsible for the room-clearing ability of Epoisses, Münster, and Limburger. These smear bacteria are officially known as Brevibacter linens. They can't live in acidic or deoxygenated environments, and so cannot survive in the interior of cheeses. Since they need salty (up to 15%), moist environments to grow, they must be encouraged to do so by continual washing or wiping of the cheese surfaces, a process which results in the development of the characteristic red "smear" surface of so-called "washed-rind" cheeses. B. linens excels at breaking down proteins into, well, stinky odor compounds, producing oniony or garlicky, fishy, and sweaty aromas.
Q Application of microorganisms A BIOSURFACTANT: Biosurfactants are amphiphilic compounds produced in living spaces or excreted extracellular hydrophobic and hydrophilic moieties that confer on the organism the ability to accumulate between fluid phases thus reducing surface and interfacial tension. Biosurfactants are produced by several microorganisms which include Acinetobacter sp., Bacillus sp, Candida antartica, Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Biosurfactants have several applications: A)ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY: Biosurfactants have strong antibacterial, antifungal and antivirus activity; these surfactants play the role of anti adhesive agents to pathogens making them useful for treating many diseases as well as its use as therapeutic and probiotic agent. A good example is the biosurfactant produced by marine B. circulans that had a potent antimicrobial activity against Gram positive and Gram negative pathogens B)BIOSURFACTANT AS BIOPESTICIDE: Lipopeptide biosurfactants produced by several bacteria exhibit insecticidal activity against fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster and hence are promising to be used as biopesticide
BIOSYNTHESIS OF NANOPARTICLES BY MICROORGANISMS: Variety of inorganic nanoparticles with well-defined chemical composition, size, and morphology has been synthesized by using different microorganism. Applications of biosynthesized nanoparticles i.e. inorganic nanoparticles including metallic nanoparticles, oxide nanoparticles, sulfide nanoparticles and other typical nanoparticles are used in drug delivery, cancer treatment, gene therapy and DNA analysis, antibacterial agents, biosensors, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). 18MMB026
Ques : Applications of Microorganisms Ans : Microbially Induced Calcite Precipitation (MICP) is a viable technique which can be applied to various applications. This technique uses urease producing bacteria to facilitate calcite precipitation to bind soil particles and improve its strength. Sporosarcina pasteurii has been proven to have high urease productivity and it has been used extensively. This technique is feasible for sustainable construction materials such as pavers, namely bio-pavers. The same principle of MICP is used in Biogrouting –As hydraulic erosion is one of the main causes of failure within earth dams and embankments so one of the method to reduce or remove this erosion is through biogrouting where bacteria injected into the soil produce urease enzyme, which converts urea to ammonium and carbonate, causing calcite precipitation that binds soil grains together.
Q: Application of microbiology. A novel alkaline protease from alkaliphilic Idiomarina sp.c9_1 with potential application for eco friendly enzymatic dehairing in the leather industry. Influence of dietary supplementation with Bacillus licheniformis and Saccharomyces cerevisiae as alternatives to monensin on growth performance, antioxidant, immunity,ruminal fermentation and microbial diversity of fattening lambs. 18mmb011.
Ans:-The electronic waste, major solid waste is spent Li-ion and Ni-Cd batteries used in digital cameras, cellular phones, and laptop computers. Co and Li leaching from spent Li-ion battery waste using pure cultures of Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans.Bioleaching of spent lithium-ion batteries with mixed cultures of acidophilic sulfur oxidizers and iron oxidizers was carried out. The spent batteries lacked iron or sulfur, and most of the components were present in the oxide form. These studies indicate that the mechanism of metal dissolution varies with different metal species and energy source types.
Que: application of microbiology. Ans :Microorganisms have evolved as a potential alternate source of energy. Microorganisms are used to produce biofuels like biodiesel, bioalcohol and also microbial fuel cell. E.g. Algae.
Que : Strain of bacteria which degrade petroleum hydrocarbons Ans : Microbial degradation is the major and ultimate natural mechanism by which one can cleanup the petroleum hydrocarbon pollutants from the environment.The recognition of biodegraded petroleum-derived aromatic hydrocarbons in marine sediments was reported by Jones et al. They studied the extensive biodegradation of alkyl aromatics in marine sediments which occurred prior to detectable biodegradation of n-alkane profile of the crude oil and the microorganisms, namely, Arthrobacter, Burkholderia, Mycobacterium, Pseudomonas, Sphingomonas, and Rhodococcus were found to be involved for alkylaromatic degradation. Microbial degradation of petroleum hydrocarbons in a polluted tropical stream in Lagos, Nigeria was reported by Adebusoye et al. Nine bacterial strains, namely, Pseudomonas fluorescens, P. aeruginosa, Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus sp., Alcaligenes sp., Acinetobacter lwoffi, Flavobacterium sp., Micrococcus roseus, and Corynebacterium sp. were isolated from the polluted stream which could degrade crude oil.
Ans:Extremophile archaea species are of particular interest due to the enzymes and molecules they produce that allow them to sustain life in extreme climates, including very high or low temperatures, extremely acid or base solutions, or when exposed to other harmful factors, including radiation. Specific enzymes which have been isolated and used for industrial purposes include thermostable DNA polymerases from the Pyrococcus furiosus. This type of polymerase isa common tool in molecular biology; it is capable of withstanding the high temperatures that are necessary to complete polymerase chain reactions. Additional enzymes isolated from Pyrococcus speciesinclude specific types of amylases and galactosidases which allow food processing to occur at high temperatrues as well.
Corynebacteria are characterized by their diverse origins. They are found in numerous ecological niches and are most often used in industry for the mass production of amino acids and nutritional factors. In particular, the amino acids produced by Corynebacterium glutamicum include the amino acid glutamic acid.
Q: Application of microorganisms A:. The prospection of lactic acid bacteria present in products fermented with various cultures has created new sources of probiotics and the discovery of strains that can improve the quality of fermented products . Probiotics are living microorganisms that have been linked to host health benefits . Currently,the best known probiotic microorganisms are those belonging to genera lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium. 18mmb011
Q:single cell protein A: Heterogeneity of cellular systems has been widely recognised but only recently have tools become available that allow probing of genes and proteins in single cells to understand it while the advancement in single cell genomic analysis has been greatly aided by the power of amplification techniques analysis of proteins in single cells has proven to be more challenging however ,recent advances in multi parameter ,flow cytometry, microscopy and other techniques have made it possible to measure wide variety of proteins.
18MBT033 Applications of Microorganisms BIOSENSORS it is a rapidly developing area of biotechnology in which living microorganisms or their enzymes or organelles are linked with electrodes , and biological reactions are converted into electrical currents. Naturally occurring photosynthetic microorganisms are the focus of an invention to rapidly detect contamination of water supplies. it involves tissue based biosensors such as green algae or cyanobacteria for direct detection of chemical warfare agents. These living sensors are always present and continuously renewed by flowing water. As water samples pass through the cell, any changes that negatively affect photosynthetic capability will be detected. With a compact optoelectronic recording system, a cell modem and encrypted communications, coded messages can be transmitted to a remote location where appropriate action can be taken.
the biosensors are also used to measure specific component in beer , monitor pollutants , detect flavor in foods ,and study environmental processes such as changes in biofilm concentration gradients.
What is immobilization? Name the methods used for microbial cell immobilization. Immobilization is the method of entrapping/attaching the microbial or cells in a suitable matrix. Different methods such as encapsulation, gel entrapment, covalent bonding, cross linking and adsorption is carried out to prepare immobilized cells.
Many industrial microbiologists/biotechnologists are responsible for the discovery, development, or implementation of certain processes and the quality of resultant products:
ANTIBIOTICS/ANTIMICROBIALS:- Both natural and chemically enhanced microbial products can be used to control human, animal, and plant diseases. Using traditional genetics or recombinant DNA techniques, the microorganisms can be modified to improve the yield or action of antibiotics and other antimicrobial agents. New research directions are aimed at discovering microbial metabolites (with pharmacological activities) useful in the treatment of hypertension, obesity, coronary heart disease, cancer, and inflammation.
VACCINES:- Vaccines are essential to protect humans and animals from microbial diseases. Recombinant DNA technology has allowed for the production of vaccines that offer protection without risk of infection (e.g., hepatitis B vaccine). Industrial microbiologists are actively involved in the development of these new vaccines.
HEALTH-CARE PRODUCTS:- The development and production of diagnostic assays that utilize monoclonal antibody or DNA probe technology are essential in the manufacture of health-care products such as rapid tests for strep throat, pregnancy, and AIDS. Microorganisms are also used to produce human or animal biologicals such as insulin, growth hormone, antibodies, and components for cosmetics. The industrial microbiologist/biotechnologist may screen new microbial sources (e.g., marine or cave-dwelling microorganisms) for their ability to produce new pharmaceuticals or develop new diagnostic assays.
FOOD/BEVERAGES PRODUCED BY MICROBIAL ACTIVITY:- Yogurt, cheese, chocolate, butter, pickles, sauerkraut, soy sauce, food supplements (such as vitamins and amino acids), food thickeners (produced from microbial polysaccharides), alcohol (beer, whiskeys, and wines), sausages, and silage from animals are a small sample of products of microbial activity. Industrial microbiologists/biotechnologists may be involved in producing concentrated microbial inocula for fermentations or the maintenance of fermentation systems utilized in production facilities. They may also take part in identifying the organisms involved in and maintaining proprietary culture collections. There is a great deal of microbiology in the food and beverage industries. Some examples are: Food/Beverages Cured or Improved by Microbial Activity: Production of coffee, tea, cocoa, summer sausage, vanilla, cheese, olives, and tobacco all require microbial activity and a microbiologist to insure product quality. Food Flavoring Agents and Preservatives: Organic acids, such as citric, malic, and ascorbic acids, and monosodium glutamate are microbial products commonly used in foods. Foods: Mushrooms, truffles, and some red and green algae are consumed directly. Yeasts are used in food supplements for humans and animals.
AGRICULTURE:- Conventional, recombinant DNA and monoclonal antibody techniques are used to improve microbial inoculants which serve as fertilizer supplements by fixing atmospheric nitrogen to improve plant yields and to serve as plant pest controls. All of these require a microbiologist to insure product efficacy and quality.
ENZYMES:- Industrial applications of enzymes include the production of cheese, the clarification of apple juice, the development of more efficient laundry detergents, pulp and paper production, and the treatment of sewage. These processes have been dramatically enhanced by the use of recombinant DNA techniques to design enzymes and increased activity, stability, and specificity.
WASTE AND WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT:- The production of clean water and the destruction of waste material are important for preserving the environment and providing drinkable water. The industrial microbiologist is directly involved in developing microbial strains to detoxify wastes of industrial, agricultural, or human origin.
Q. What is immobilization? What are the methods used for microbial cell immobilization..! Ans. The technique used for the physical or chemical fixation of cells, organelles, enzymes, or other proteins (e.g. monoclonal antibodies ) onto a solid support, into a solid matrix or retained by a membrane, in order to increase their stability and make possible their repeated or continued use is called immobilization. Gel entrapment, Encapsulation ,Adsorption/Adhesion etc methods for to prepare immobilized cells.
Which is the fastest moving bacteria and what is its speed?
ReplyDelete(1) Spirillum serpens is a gram negative bacteria which possess amphitrichous flagella.
It rotates at a rate of 2400 r/min, body rotates at 800 rpm.
Estimated speed of is 50 micrometer/sec.
(2) The rod shaped, gram negative bacillus,Bellovibrio bacteriovorus possess polar flagellum.
It rotates 100 times/sec and can move 50 times its own length of 2 micrometer/sec.
Estimated speed is 100 micrometer/sec.
(3) Vibrio comma is a gram negative, comma shaped bacterium.
It is a polar fllagelate and estimated speed is 200 micrometer/sec.
Hence it is the fastest moving bacteria.
Bacteria can reach speeds from 2 microns per second ( beggiatoa, a gliding bacteria) to 200 microns per second ( vibrio comma, polar bacteria ). Speed varies with type of bacteria, but flagellates are undoubtedly faster than gliders.
ReplyDelete18mmb006
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ReplyDeleteHiral Shah (18MBT028)
ReplyDeleteGive an example of prey preadator relationship in context to Microbial ecology.
(1) Relationship between Tetrahymena pyriformis,a predator protozoan, and Klebsiella pneumonia a prey bacterium.
In the relationship between Tetrahymena and Klebsiella, natural selection within the predator-prey system increases the efficiency of the predator in finding and engulfing its prey and also favors those individual prey that escape predation.
As the prey population is consumed, there is selection for small predators.
Bacterial population under strong predatory pressure cease to produce capsules, enabling the bacterial population to grow more rapidly and adhere to solid surface.
Coexistence is dependent on the ability of prey to find refuge. It may result from the environmental heterogenecity.
(2) Ciliate, Flagellate and amoeboid protozoa are predators.
Bacterial population - Prey.
(3) Didinium nasutum is predator.
Paramecium caudatum is prey.
(4) Paramecium bursaria - Predator.
Schizosacchromyces pombe - Prey.
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ReplyDeleteThe doctor who went to the cannibals to aware them regarding the disease “kuru” caused due to the practicing of cannibalism (esp. due to eating brain) and he also even collected the brain tissues from them:
ReplyDeleteDr. Michael Philip Alper
-Imagine what happen if no microorganism present on earth.
ReplyDelete- gnotobiotic animals(germ free animals)
- We’d be still digesting food – with some digestive disorders and
of course lacking the vitamins we get from bacteria.
-Microbes play a very vital role in our lives, right from maintaining life on earth to fixing gases and breaking down dead plants and animals into simpler substances that are used at the beginning of our food chain.
-Waste would accumulate indefinitely.If there aren't any microbes to break down complex compounds into their usable components, all of this "stuff" is going to build up.
[18mbt014]
What is the situation if all the microorganisms will disappeared or not in existence ?
ReplyDelete- there are some major impact they will make if microbes are vanishes or disappeared from earth:
No food to eat: as such food Chain contain microorganisms in the most base of it No plant can survive without microbes and thus within a year or so we will die.
No oxygen to breath :as plants doesn't exist anymore, There would be no conversation of Co2 into o2 And thus depleting the oxygen we breath and some Cynobacteria contain chloroplast within them Self's so they are also the major producers of oxygen.
Earth will stink so soon :without the help of the microorganisms even the normal paper takes 15 days to degrade which has nomal chains Of simple lignin in it but if microbes act on that this can be completed within 3 days. So now we might imagine what would be the condition.
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DeleteQ-1 imagine if there is no microorganisms on earth?
ReplyDeleteif we talk about origin of life then all multicellular organisms are evoluted from the unicellular organisms. so might be possible there were no human life originated if there were no unicellular microorganisms.
now if we talk about present then many organisms are live in gut or intestine of human they are help in digestion of food or help to produce some vitamins.
Also many microorganisms help to fix nitrogen in plants and by that nitrogen,oxygen,carbon are regulate and maintain in atmosphere.
Microorganisms allow to degrade dead plants and animal that help to regulate the food chain.
Many human population die by microbial infections so ultimately its help in maintain human population.
So, without microorganisms humans do not survive for longer.
roll no.(18mbt012)
Que: what happen if microorganisms are eridicated from the world
ReplyDeleteAns:As Louis Pasteur once said, "Life would not long remain possible in the absence of microbes."
Role of microorganisms in the evolution of animals and plants: the hologenome theory of evolution.
The hologenome is defined as the sum of the genetic information of the host and its microbiota.
The theory is based on four generalizations: (1) All animals and plants establish symbiotic relationships with microorganisms. (2) Symbiotic microorganisms are transmitted between generations. (3) The association between host and symbionts affects the fitness of the holobiont within its environment. (4) Variation in the hologenome can be brought about by changes in either the host or the microbiota genomes; under environmental stress, the symbiotic microbial community can change rapidly. These points taken together suggest that the genetic wealth of diverse microbial symbionts can play an important role both in adaptation and in evolution of higher organisms.
And now it disrupt whole system of globe as well as human
Microorganisms play an important role in our life: helps us to digest our food, decompose wastes and participate in various cycles. They are diverse and have adapted to inhabit different environments including extreme conditions, such as hot vents under the ocean to the ice caps; known as extremophiles. There are more microorganisms present in us than there are cells, and the various microorganisms are bacteria, viruses, fungi and protozoa.
Moreover, microorganisms digest harmful chemicals, such as pollutants and chemical wastes produced by the industry through a process known as bioremediation.
gut microbiome (the microorganisms living in your digestive tract) plays an import role in digesting food, especially food containing cellulose. The gut microbiome is also believed to play an important role in the immune system.
Applications of microorganisms in the food industry, mainly in the production of dairy products are another example where microorganisms are beneficial to humans.
So these is the importance of microorganisms in our life so i think without it we will not survive.
18mbt040
Dhwani Pandya 18mbt020
ReplyDeleteQue : Imagine what would happen when there are no microorganisms on earth.
And : Starting with evolution of life on earth, life emerged 3.8 billion years ago initially with unicellular organisms such as bacteria while multicellular organisms evolved over a billion years later. Microorganisms are everywhere ie. On skin, in mouth, in gut, in water, in soil, air, etc. They are responsible for many essential activities like recycling of waste, help plants for photosynthesis, converting the nutrients into Consumable form, etc. Microorganisms have a huge diversity compared to any others in ecosystem.
If microorganisms diminish from nature then 1) The nutrients won't be produced and cycled. Eg. A plant survives via photosynthesis in which O2 is made available to the environment for other organisms. Plants would die due to lack of photosynthesis. Also the living organisms won't be able to uptake nutrients or create nutrients on their own without microbes. 2) Waste would not be recycled and will get accumulated. 3) Animals like Ruminants which depend on gut microbes for degradation of cellulose as they cannot degrade cellulose by themselves will die out of starvation if microbes are absent. 4) Also the soil without microbes is of no use for the plant. Eg. For leguminous plants, there is a symbiotic relationship between nitrogen fixing bacteria and the plant. So without nitrogen fixing bacteria leguminous cannot fix nitrogen and so eventually the plant dies. 5) Also the oceans become stagnant. This are few points which shows that without microorganisms, one cannot survive.
Talking about present situation is that bacteria are useful in fermentation process(baking industry, alcohol industry, etc.), as antibiotics(as medicine against bacterial infection), for food preserving, etc. Microorganisms are also beneficial for the body Eg. Lactobacillus in curd is very helpful for digestion.
So life without microorganisms is not possible.
Question:-Imagine if there is no microorganisms on earth?
ReplyDeleteAnswer:-》If you could wave a magic wand and remove all microbes from Earth - all viruses, bacteria, fungi, anything you could call a "germ" or a "bug" - then naturally all infectious diseases would vanish.
▪No Ebola! No common colds! No yeast infections!
▪This may seem like the best thing ever to happen to humans, but as you'll eventually see, the loss of microbes would have dire consequences for humans, animals, plants, and the environment - stuff that makes a stomach bug or the flu pale in comparison.
》Life depends upon the constant cycling and recycling of the basic elements of life.
▪A plant, for example, survives via photosynthesis on water (hydrogen and oxygen), sunlight (to convert water and carbon dioxide into sugar), and a host of other elements like nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium. All of these basic chemicals are taken in from the environment and recycled back to the Earth after they're consumed.
▪A loss of all microbes would be terrible news for living organisms that can't create or take in these essential nutrients on their own.
》If there aren't any microbes to break down complex compounds into their usable components, all of this "stuff" is going to build up.
▪As we've learned, plants are reliant upon bacteria to survive.
▪ If they don't have microbes to take in and convert important chemical compounds into usable parts, they'll rapidly lose to ability to produce fuel via photosynthesis and will quickly die.
》Ruminant animals can't digest cellulose, the main compound that makes up plant cell walls, on their own. They rely on gut microbes that can break down cellulose, allowing the animal to digest and absorb the nutrients from the plant.
▪A loss of microbes would mean that they'd starve.
▪ And this assumes that there are plants to eat in the first place. Again, a loss of microbes entirely would mean that there would be no plants for them to eat at all.
》If plants completely lose their ability to take in nitrogen in a usable form, for example, then we can "fix" it for them by fertilizing plants by hand. However, this would ultimately lead to rapid global warming from increased animal respiration and use of fossil fuels, the study points out, eventually choking our oceans and soils of any sustainable life.
》 In the end, we'd survive for a period of time without microbes, but not indefinitely.
》 "Humans and other animals (e.g., insects) would survive for a time, decades or centuries even," the study authors write in the paper, "but long-term survival of most eukaryotes would be doubtful."
Roll No:-18MMB010
Hiral Shah (18MBT028)
ReplyDeleteImagine the situation of Earth without microorganism.
As correctly said by Louis Pasteur ,"Life would not long remain possible in the absence of micobes."
Microorganisms are the oldest inhabitants of the Earth. They have been here since 3.6 billion years ago.
If there were no microbes, there would have not been any EVOLUTION and hence no VARIATIONS and no different types of life forms on Earth.
Talking about the present condition of Earth without microbes, survival of most Eukaryotes would be doubtful.
1) Germ free existence.
2) No biogeochemical cycling of nutrients.
Rapid exhaustion of available macronutrients and micronutrients in terrestrial and aquatic environment.
3) Fungal decomposition would become the critical link between organisms death ,decay and return of decomposed nutrients to bottom of eukaryotic food chains.
So most species on Earth would become extinct and population size would be reduced greatly for the species that endured.
4) we could digest our food as gnotobiotic animals, assimilating most of what we have consumed.
5) Imbalance in Ecosystem ,Food chain and Food web.
6) Absence of all forms of microbial disease including Ebola, Malaria, common cold, AIDS, and many more.
7) Human and animal waste would accumulate rapidly. There would be very little decomposition apart from dissociation and inherent catabolic enzymatic activity.
It will lead to Soil and Water pollution.
8) Most ruminant livestock would starve without microbial symbionts.
Plants would rapidly deplete Nitrogen, cease photosynthesis and then die. An alternative to it is to provide synthetic Nitrogen rich fertilizers. But it would lead to Global warming and pollution.
Hence, concluding that Microbes sustain life on this planet because of myriad associations and biogeochemical processes. Although life would persist in the absence of microorganisms, both the quantity and quality of life would be reduced drastically.
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ReplyDeleteThis comment has been removed by the author.
ReplyDeleteQue: what happens if all microbes were removed from the earth?
ReplyDeleteAns: Microbes plays a major role in our daily life, If all microbes were to disappear, the future of life on the planet would parallel a world without Bacteria and Archea, a Bacteria- and Archaea-free world, most biogeochemical cycling would cease; human and animal waste would accumulate rapidly. There would be very little decomposition apart from disassociation and inherent catabolic enzymatic activity. The essential role that microbes play in biomass recycling would not be served even by fungi or protists, resulting in a rapid exhaustion of available macronutrients and micronutrients in terrestrial and aquatic environments. Living food sources would be increasingly difficult to find. most ruminant livestock would starve without microbial symbionts, and plants would rapidly deplete nitrogen, cease photosynthesis, and then die. Intensive human intervention required to produce and distribute sufficient vitamins, plant fertilizers, and food sources would likely overwhelm ingenuity in the face of mounting environmental, ecological, and humanitarian disaster.
Roll no: 18MMB018
Q) Imagine what would happen if there are no microorganisms?
ReplyDeleteAns: Microbes are the most oldest inhabitants on this planet. As they came 3.6 billion years ago.
If at the time of evolution there had been no microbes, then there would have been no phrase such as Evolution and no possible Variation would have been seen on this planet.
If suppose in the present time there were no microorganisms present:
1] The level of oxygen in the atmosphere would get depleted.As,phytoplanktons produce 50% of oxygen in the atmosphere .
2] The decomposition of the dead plants,animals and other matters will not be possible.
3] The plants would not be able to undergo the process of photosynthesis which will cause a imbalance the Food chain and Food web.
4] The nitrogen fixation would not happen and thus, the plants won't be able to grow.
Q) Why are scientists not talking about the nitrogen fixing bacteria anymore?
Ans:A technique has been developed of putting nitrogen-fixing bacteria into the cells of plant roots. The major breakthrough came when a specific strain of nitrogen-fixing bacteria was found in sugar-cane which discovered could intracellularly colonise all major crop plants. This ground-breaking development potentially provides every cell in the plant with the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen. The implications for agriculture are enormous as this new technology can provide much of the plant's nitrogen needs.
Read more at: https://phys.org/news/2013-07-world-technology-enables-crops-nitrogen.html#jCp
Roll No: 18MBT001
Why nitrogen fixing plants cannot be produced by genetic engineering?
ReplyDeleteThe critical enzyme involved in Nitrogen fixation is NITROGENASE.
Nitrogenase is consists of two metalloproteins:
1) Fe (Azoferrodoxin).
2) Fe-Mo protein (Molybdoferrodoxin).
Nitrogen Fixation is carried out by three groups of gene:
a) Nod gene- Responsible for nodule formation.
b) Nif gene- Responsible for Nitrogen fixation.
c) Hup gene- Responsible for Nitrogen uptake.
These genes are present in a group on a single chromosome.This makes their copying and transfer mechanism simple for Genetic engineering purpose.
Nitrogen fixing plants cannot be produced by genetic engineering due to following reasons:
1)Nitrogenase component proteins are extremely oxygen sensitive and are irreversibly denatured by oxygen. So it will be necessary to either provide an anaerobic environment to the enzyme or protect it from oxygen damage.
Free living Diazotrophs achieve the latter by a variety of different strategies, including "respiratory", "conformational" and "auto" protection.
However plants do not possess any such mechanism.
2) Nitrogen Fixation is an energy intensive process and requires a suitable reductant to support Electron Transport to Nitrogenase.
Fortunately, photosynthetically generated ATP and NADPH are plentiful in Chloroplast, the energy demands of nitrogenase may compete with the demand of photosynthate provided by Calvin cycle.
3) Though the mechanism of nodule formation is complex nod gene is responsible for nodule formation as well as host recognition and specificity.
4) Most of the cereal plants are monocots and any such effort to transfer such nif gene will revolutionize the yield, economics and environmental problems.
But there are difficulties in transferring, integration and expression of a prokaryotic gene into a monocot.
5)Genetic complexity and fragility of nif regulation.
It is difficult to target nif encoded polypeptides to the plastid from a nuclear located transgene.
The low level of corresponding polypeptides in plant is a consequence of either poor translation of the message or protein degradation when transformed.
6) Another potential problem is the relative inefficiency of nitrogenase. Hence, we may have to obtain very high levels of expression inorder to achieve sufficient enzyme activity.
scientists not talking about the nitrogen fixing bacteria?
ReplyDeleteA nitrogen fixation the conversion of atmospheric nitrogen into combined form such as ammonia through chemical and by biological action such as rhizobia.
A Professor Edward cocking developed a technique of putting the nitrogen fixing bacteria in the plants roots. his major breakthrough came when he found the specific strain of nitrogen fixing bacteria in sugarcane which could intracellulary colonize in the crop plants. this provides every plant cell the ability to fix nitrogen which provides enormous amounts of nitrogen to the plants much of the plants nitrogen needs.
leads to:
1)increased concentration of nitrous oxide leads to destruction of protective stratospheric zone
2)growing atmospheric concentration of nitric oxide a major contributor to acid rain
3)a weakening of the ability of plant communities to remove the heat trapping carbon dioxide from the air and store it
roll no: 18mmb026
I found one of the major and primitive kind of disadvantage of a photosynthetic human!!!
ReplyDeleteAdults need ATP same as their own weight.
To produce roughly 60kg of ATP, a typical adult woman therefore requires around 700g of glucose per day. Given the maximum known rates of photosynthesis in higher plants and assuming that the surface area of an adult woman’s skin is around 1.6 m2, a woman with green skin could produce a highly disappointing 1% of her daily demand for glucose through photosynthesis. So to meet her energy demands, a photosynthesising woman would have to have a lot more skin. Indeed, roughly a tennis court’s worth.
Roll call: 18mbt036
Ecological significance of Chemolithotrophs.
ReplyDeleteCertain groups of prokaryotes obtain their energy from the oxidation of reduced inorganic compounds such as sulfide, ammonia and hydrogen, and use carbon dioxide as carbon source. These organisms are called chemolithotrophs.
1) Chemolithotrophy is widespread in the two domains of prokaryotes: the Bacteria and the Archaea.
Many chemolithotrophs use molecular oxygen as electron acceptor, but chemolithotrophy is also possible in the absence of oxygen. Nitrate, sulfate, elemental sulfur or carbon dioxide serves as electron acceptors for certain groups of chemolithotrophs.
2) Nitrification, or the oxidation of ammonia via nitrite to nitrate by chemolithotrophic bacteria, is a key process in the global nitrogen cycle.
3) Two types of anaerobic chemolithotrophs oxidize hydrogen with carbon dioxide as electron acceptor: methanogens and homoacetogens, producing methane and acetate, respectively.
4) Chemolithotrophs participate in the biogeochemical cycles of certain metals (iron, manganese) and metalloids (arsenic).
5) In some environments such as deep‐sea hydrothermal vents and certain underground caves, chemolithotrophic primary production driven by the oxidation of hydrogen sulfide provides the basis for the functioning of the ecosystem.
As sunlight can't reach in such places, there is absence of phototrophs and hence no photosynthesis occurs.
Hence, they serve as primary producers in such extreme environments.
(8MBT028)
Why are accessory pigments necessary in photosystems?
ReplyDeleteAccessory pigments are light-absorbing compounds, found in photosynthetic organisms, that work in conjunction with chlorophyll a.
Eg. carotenoids, phycobiliproteins, and chlorophylls b, c, and d.
They are necessary because:
A. They capture a wider spectrum of wavelengths of light.
B. They donate electrons to the reaction center.
C. They split water into hydrogen ions and oxygen.
D. They conduct the carbon reactions of photosynthesis.
why different pigments require for photosynthesis in plants?
ReplyDelete-Most photosynthetic organisms have a variety of different pigments,different pigments absorb different wavelength of light. so they can absorb energy from a wide range of wavelengths at a time.
(18mbt014)
Q. Why accessory pigments are necessary in photosystems ?
ReplyDeleteAns.. Accessory pigments are the light absorbing pigments which absorb and transfer the light ultimately to the the reaction center.
Also the pigments absorb and dissipate excess light energy which prevents the photo-oxidation of chlorophyll.
(18mbt012)
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ReplyDeleteQ. What are the Ecological significance of Chemolithotrophs?
ReplyDeleteAns..
chemolithotrophic prokaryotes include nitrification (the formation of nitrate from ammonia), production of sulfuric acid from sulfide and elemental sulfur, and the formation of methane from hydrogen and carbon dioxide.
in short they are produce some product by their metabolism and that products are used by other organisms as their primary source of energy.
so if there is no chemolithotrophs then product produce by them will be not form and other organisms will be not use that as their energy source.
(18mbt012)
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ReplyDeleteQ.if change Electron acceptors in ETC.
ReplyDeleteA.Just as there are a number of different electron donors (organic matter in organotrophs, inorganic matter in lithotrophs), there are a number of different electron acceptors, both organic and inorganic. If oxygen is available, it is invariably used as the terminal electron acceptor, because it generates the greatest Gibbs free energy change and produces the most energy.
In anaerobic environments, different electron acceptors are used, including nitrate, nitrite, ferric iron, sulfate, carbon dioxide, and small organic molecules such as fumarate.
Since electron transport chains are redox processes, they can be described as the sum of two redox pairs. For example, the mitochondrial electron transport chain can be described as the sum of the NAD+/NADH redox pair and the O2/H2O redox pair. NADH is the electron donor and O2 is the electron acceptor.
Not every donor-acceptor combination is thermodynamically possible. The redox potential of the acceptor must be more positive than the redox potential of the donor.
(18mbt014)
Role Of acessory pigments:-
ReplyDeleteDifferent accessory pigments absorb different wavelengths of light. Carotenoids, the most common accessory pigments, absorb extra blue wavelengths. In addition to aiding in the creation of energy from photosynthesis, the carotenoids also protect chlorophyll a from damage from too much light radiation. Chlorophyll b, c and d, lycopene and phycobiliproteins are additional accessory pigments found in some plants.
Algae and cyanobacteria, a single-celled organism that lives in the water and uses photosynthesis, contain many accessory pigments to maximize energy production in their water habitats. Phycobiliproteins allow these water organisms to absorb most wavelengths of light, including much of the green range. Many species of algae and other water plants have red or yellow coloring due to their unique accessory pigments that absorb the wavelengths of light that travel best through the water. The specific accessory pigments found in a water plants help scientists determine the characteristics of the plant's natural ecosystem.
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Que.
ReplyDeleteClinical Significance of lactic acid producing bacteria. Ans.In patient with short bowel syndrome(SBS), intestinal microbiota is an important factor influencing clinical outcome.An increase in D-lactate-producing bacteria can lead to D-lactic acidosis also called D-lactate encephalopathy causing severe neurological impairment. (18mmb022)
Que: what do you mean by carbon dioxide fixation?
ReplyDeleteAns: It is the conversaion process of inorganic carbon to organic compound by living organisms.
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DeleteQ.What is CO2 fixation ?
ReplyDeleteAns.CO2 fixation or carbon assimilation is process of converting inorganic carbon to organic carbon majorly by the means of photosynthesis.
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DOTS :-
ReplyDeleteDirectly observed treatment, short-course (DOTS, also known as TB-DOTS) is the name given to the tuberculosis (TB) control strategy recommended by the World Health Organization.DOTS-Plus is for multi-drug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB). According to WHO, "The most cost-effective way to stop the spread of TB in communities with a high incidence is by curing it. The best curative method for TB is known as DOTS.
with DOTS treatment services in 1990 approximately 60% have been benefited from this care. Since 1995, 41 million people have been successfully treated and up to 6 million lives saved through DOTS and the Stop TB Strategy. 5.8 million TB cases were notified through DOTS programs in 2009.
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This comment has been removed by the author.
ReplyDeleteDOTS:
ReplyDeleteDirectly observed treatment.DOTS is the WHO recommended for TB control.DOTS involve treatment with four drugs regimen isonicotinylhydrazide(INH),Pyrazinamide(PZA),ethambutol(EMB)and rifampin (RIF) for 6-9 months. DOTS must be used throughout the entire course therapy for best cure rates.
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Q. WHAT IS DOTS?
ReplyDeleteAns...
DOTS or Directly Observed Treatment Short course is the internationally recommended strategy for TB control that has been recognized as a highly efficient and cost-effective strategy. DOTS comprises five components.
1. Sustained political and financial commitment. TB can be cured and the epidemic reversed if adequate resources and administrative support for TB control are provided
2.Diagnosis by quality ensured sputum-smear microscopy. Chest symptomatic examined this way helps to reliably find infectious patients
3.Standardized short-course anti-TB treatment (SCC) given under direct and supportive observation (DOT).Helps to ensure the right drugs are taken at the right time for the full duration of treatment.
4. A regular, uninterrupted supply of high quality anti-TB drugs. Ensures that a credible national TB program does not have to turn anyone away.
5. Standardized recording and reporting. Helps to keep track of each individual patient and to monitor overall program performance.
(18mbt012)
Question. How cannibalism leads to Kuru disease?
ReplyDeleteAnswer:
1. Kuru is generally defined as a rare, incurable neurodegenrative disorder that was formerly common among the Fore people of Papua New Guinea. The name Kuru means to "shiver" or " trembling in fear".
2. Kuru is caused by the transmission of abnormally folded prions proteins (PrP) founded in contaminated human brain tisuues, which leads to symptoms such as tremors, loss of coordination and neurodegenration.
3. 'Cannibalism' is defined as the act of an individual of a species consuming all or parts of another individual of same species as food.
4. The Fore people Papua ritualistically cooked and consumed body parts of their family members following their death to symbolize respect and mourning.
5. As the brain is the organ enriched in the infection agent prion, women and children, who consumed brain and viscera, had much higher likelihood of being infected than man, who preferentially consumed muscles. The prions from infected individual enter the healthy individual and leads to neurodegenration disorder thus leading to Kuru disease.
6. Recently researchers at Medical research council discovered a naturally occurring variant of a prions protein in Papua population confers strong resistance to kuru.
Question. What does nitrogen fixation means?
Answer:
• Nitrogen fixation is defined as a chemical process that converts atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia that is absorbed by organisms.
• Atmospheric nitrogen is converted by the action of Diazotrophs which are a form of bacteria and archaea organism that grow without external form of nitrogen. They thrive in a low oxygen atmosphere where they feed on nitrogen, converting it into ammonium as a byproduct.
Question. Name the non-fermenting bacteria?
Answer: Non-fermenting bacteria mainly refers to group of bacteria that cannot catabolize glucose but may catabolize other sugars. Example of some non- fermentors:
• Bordetella: a genus of small, gram negative coccobacilli of the phylum Proteobacteria that mainly infects humans.
• Acinetobacter: is a genus of gram- negative bacteria belonging to Gammaproteobacteria exhibiting twitching motility.
• Legionella: is a pathogenic group of Gram-negative bacteria that is responsible for causing pneumonia type illness called Legionnaires disease and flu like illness called Pontiac fever.
• Stenotrophomonas: is a genus of gram-negative bacteria commonly found in soil.
Question. List of Research Institutes in India where viruses can be studied??
ReplyDelete1. The National Institute of Virology, Pune is an Indian Virology Research Institute, and one of the translation science cells part of Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR). It was established in the year 1952.
Other Research institutes in India that are part of ICMR
-Enterovirus Research Centre, Mumbai, Maharashtra.
-National Institute of Cholera & Enteric Diseases, Kolkata, West Bengal.
-National AIDS Research Institute, Pune, Maharashtra.
2. AIIMS, New Delhi.
3. National Center for Disease Control, New Delhi.
-The Virology Institute of Kerala will be soon established by the Kerala Biotechnology Commission (KBC) and Pinarayi Vijayan Chief Minister of Kerala, will launch the project on December 4, 2018
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ReplyDeleteNidhi Patel
Question. List of Research Institutes in India where viruses can be studied??
1. The National Institute of Virology, Pune is an Indian Virology Research Institute, and one of the translation science cells part of Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR). It was established in the year 1952.
Other Research institutes in India that are part of ICMR
-Enterovirus Research Centre, Mumbai, Maharashtra.
-National Institute of Cholera & Enteric Diseases, Kolkata, West Bengal.
-National AIDS Research Institute, Pune, Maharashtra.
2. AIIMS, New Delhi.
3. National Center for Disease Control, New Delhi.
-The Virology Institute of Kerala will be soon established by the Kerala Biotechnology Commission (KBC) and Pinarayi Vijayan Chief Minister of Kerala, will launch the project on December 4, 2018
Question: Why ate viruses not placed in the evolutionary tree?
ReplyDeleteAnswer:
1. In the phylogenetic tree, the characteristics of the members of the taxa are inherited from previous ancestors. Virus do not share any of the characteristics with cells neither is any gene shared by all viral lineages
2. .Viruses are polyphyletic they have many evolutionary origins while cellular life has a single commen origin. There are common protein motifs in viral capsids, but these have likely come about through convergent evolution or horizontal gene transfer.
3. The problem is that viruses move readily between diverse hosts and it cannot be proved that the early viruses appeared with the first cells.
4. Virus do not have inherited structure derived of a single common ancestors.
5. It has been argued that the existence of viral genomes encode proteins involved in energy, carbon and cellular metabolism indicates that viruses are ancestral to cells. But metabolic gene are not present in the ancestors of these viruses. This makes it more debatable that viruses predate cells.
6. Through out history, there have been many definition of life. Viruses do not connect in any of the criteria because of the lack of any form of energy, carbon and cannot replicate or evolve in any open region. They replicate within cells and evolve within cells. Thus without cells viruses are “inanimate complex organic matter”.
Therefore viruses cannot be placed in the tree of life.
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Question: How are viruses named?
ReplyDeleteAnswer:
1. Viruses can be named based on the first host cell that is found to be infected and the way how the damage is caused. (tobacco mosaic virus)
2. They can be named upon where they are first discovered geographically like Semliki forest virus, West Nile virus etc..
3. They are named after the disease in which they are associated (Bovine Diarrhoea Virus, polio virus).
4. Based on the meaning in the language of the first people afflicted with the virus (onyonyong Virus).
5. Based on the name of the discoverer eg. Epstein-Barr Viruse, named after the two scientist who first identified the virus.
6. They can be named by numbers or letters for instance, SV40 is an abbreviation for simian vacuolating virus 40 or simian virus 40, a polyomavirus that is found in both monkeys and humans. It was named for the effect it produced on infected green monkey cells, which developed an unusual number of vacuoles.
The convention of viruses are quite complicated. So it have recently begun to be simplified by a taxonomy that is based upon the type of nucleic acid, structure of the virion and replication scheme.
Roll no.: 18MBT031
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ReplyDeletePatel Krupa
Question) virology research institute in india
Ans)
1) The National Institute of Virology(1978)- one of the major Institutes of the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR). It was established at Pune, Maharashtra State in 1952 as Virus Research Centre (VRC) under the auspices of the ICMR and the Rockefeller Foundation (RF), USA.
2) Manipal Center for Virus Research.
(Karnataka)
3) National center for disease control (Delhi)
•Besides, the following ICMR Institutes also working on viruses:
1. Enterovirus Research Centre, Mumbai, Maharashtra
2. National Institute of Cholera & Enteric Diseases, Kolkata, West Bengal
3. National AIDS Research institute, Pune, Maharashtra
4. Virus Unit, Kolkata
5. Regional Medical Research Centre at Dibrugarh, Bhubaneswar, Jabalpur and Port Blair.
4) AIIMS( New Delhi)
Question- How viruses are named ?
ReplyDeleteAns- For the first 60 years of viruses discovery, there was no system for classifying viruses.
Viruses may be named according to the associated diseases (poliovirus, rabies), the type of disease caused (murine leukemia virus), or the sites in the body affected or from which the virus was first isolated (rhinovirus, adenovirus). Some viruses are named for where they were first isolated (Sendai virus, Coxsackievirus), the scientists who discovered them (Epstein-Barr virus), or for the way people imagined they were contracted (dengue = ‘evil spirit’; influenza = ‘influence’ of bad air).
Characteristics were to be used for the classification of all viruses are:
1. Nature of the nucleic acid in the virion
2. Symmetry of the protein shell
3. Presence or absence of a lipid membrane
4. Dimensions of the virion and capsid
5. Type of disease caused
6. Which animal and tissues are infected
Rashmi Malik
18MBT043
Question:-What is the satellite virus & helper virus?
ReplyDeleteAnswer:-
》A satellite is a subviral agent composed of nucleic acid that depends on the co-infection of a host cell with a helper virus for its replication.
Below some Example Of the satellite virus & helper virus respectively.
■Acanthamoeba polyophagamimi virus--》sputnik
■Cafeteria roenbergensis virus--》mavirus
■hepatitis delta satellite virus ---》hepatitis B virus
Single-stranded RNA satellite viruses:-
Chronic bee-paralysis satellite virus
Tobacco necrosis virus satellite
Maize white line mosaic satellite virus
Panicum mosaic satellite virus
Tobacco mosaic satellite virus
Tobacco necrosis satellite virus
Double-stranded DNA satellite viruses:-
Sputnik virophage
Zamilon virophage
Mavirus virophage
Organic Lake virophage
{ Virophages are small, double stranded DNA viral phages that require the co-infection of another virus. The co-infecting viruses are typically giant viruses. }
Mehul Kachchhava
18MMB010
classification of virus according to ICTV
ReplyDeletedsDNA genome
1- Adenoviridae- host vertebrates
2- Asfaviridae- host vertebrates
3- Birnaviridae- host vertebrates, invertebrates
4- Herpesviridae- host vertebrates
5- Papillomaviridae- host vertebrates
6- Ascoviridae- host invertebrates
7- Fuselloviridae- host archaea
8- Iridoviridae- host vertebrate, invertebrate
9- Myoviridae- host bacteria
10- Podoviridae- host bacteria
ssDNA genome
1- Circoviridae- host vertebrates
2- Geminiviridae- host plants
3- Inoviridae- host bacteria,mycoplasma
4- Microviridae- host bacteria,spiroplasma
5- Nanovirus- host plants
6- Parvoviridae- host vertebrates,invertebrates
positive ssRNA genome
1- Allexivirus- host plant
2- Arteriviridae- host vertebrates
3- Astroviridae- host vertebrates
4- Barnaviridae- host fungi
5- Flaviviridae- host vertebrates
6- Leviviridae- host bacteria
7- Picornaviridae- host vertebrates
negative ssRNA genome
1- Rhabdoviridae- host vertebrates,plants
2- Paramyxoviridae- host vertebrates
3- Ophiovirus- host plants
4- Orthomyxoviridae- host vertebrates
5- Filoviridae- host vertebrates
6- Deltavirus- host vertebrates
dsRNA genome
1- Birnaviridae- host vertebrates
2- Hypoviridae- host fungi
3- Cystoviridae- host bacteria
4- Reoviridae- host vertebrates,invertebrates
5- Partitiviridae- host plant,fungi
RT.DNA GENOME
1- Caulimoviridae- host plants
2- Hepadnaviridae- host vertebrates
RT.RNA genome
1- Retroviridae- host vertebrates
18MBT014
How viruses are named?
ReplyDeleteInitially after viruses were discovered there was no system for classifying viruses. Consequently viruses were named haphazardly. Most of the vertebrate viruses have been named according to:
1) the associated diseases (poliovirus, rabies)
2)the type of disease caused (murine leukemia virus),
3)the sites in the body affected or from which the virus was first isolated (rhinovirus, adenovirus)
4)the places from where they were first isolated (Sendai virus, Coxsackievirus)
5) the scientists who discovered them (Epstein-Barr virus), or
6) due to common cultural perceptions e.g. influenza ‘influence’ of bad air or dengue ‘evil spirit’.
(18MMB007)
Qts:- List of Virology Reaserch Institutes in India.
ReplyDelete1. VRC [ Virus Reasech Centre] was redesignated as National Institute of Virology [NIV] -Pune
2. All India Institute Of India[AIIMS] .New Delhi
The two existing Apex Institutes for viral investigations and research in the country are as follows:
ICMR’s National Institute of Virology at Pune, Maharashtra and its three field stations at Bangalore (Karnataka), Gorakhpur (U.P.) and Alappuzha (Kerala)
National Centre for Diseases Control, Delhi under the Ministry of Health & Family Welfare.
Besides, the following ICMR Institutes also working on viruses:
1. Enterovirus Research Centre, Mumbai, Maharashtra
2. National Institute of Cholera & Enteric Diseases, Kolkata, West Bengal
3. National AIDS Research institute, Pune, Maharashtra
4. Virus Unit, Kolkata
5. Regional Medical Research Centre at Dibrugarh, Bhubaneswar, Jabalpur and Port Blair.
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WHAT IS CO2 FIXATION?
ReplyDeleteANS;- The process by which carbon from the atmosphere is converted into carbon compounds, such as carbohydrate susually in living organisms mainly in plants and algae, usually by photosynthesis.
The most prominent example is photosynthesis, although chemosynthesis is another form of carbon fixation that can take place in the absence of sunlight.
18MMB013
QTS;- WHO FOUND KURU CAUSED BY CANNIBALISM BY VISTING VILLAGE?
ReplyDeleteANS;-
Michael Alpers, linked kuru with cannibaism by living deep in New Guinea’s kuru heartland.
Shirley Lindenbaum, a medical anthropologist .
Lindenbaum traveled from village to village mapping family trees so researchers could settle the issue of the causative agent of kuru.
Finally, after urging from researchers like Lindenbaum, biologists came around to the idea that the strange disease stemmed from eating dead people. The case was closed after a group at the U.S. National Institutes of Health injected infected human brain into chimpanzees, and watched symptoms of kuru develop in the animals months later. The group, which won a Nobel Prize for the findings, dubbed it a "slow virus."
But it wasn't a virus — or a bacterium, fungus, or parasite. It was an entirely new infectious agent, one that had no genetic material, could survive being boiled, and wasn't even alive.
At last it was found that the causative agent of KURU is sub viral entity PRIONS.
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Pruteen:- single cell protein.
ReplyDeletePruteen Trade name for microbial protein produced by growing bacteria, Methylophilus methylotrophus, on methanol (derived from methane or natural gas); 70% protein in dry weight.
pruteen has been used as an animal feed.Cream coloured and odorless powder,Highly concentrated and digestible diet for farm animals.
Methylophilus Methylotropous :-Non-photosynthetic bacteria,
Aerobic(need oxygen to grow) Require an organic carbon and energy source, together with source of nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur and the mineral elements for bacterial growth.
Cultivation of bacteria--Continuous Culture.The fresh medium flows into the fermenter continuously, and part of the medium in the reactor is withdrawn from the fermenter at the same flow rate of the inlet flow.
Organic Carbon+ Nitrogen+ Mineral Nutrients+ Oxygen --> SCP+ CO2+ H2O+ Heat
Their rapid growth
Their short generation times; most can double their cell mass in 20 minutes to 2 hours.
Capable of growing on a variety of raw materials, ranging from carbohydrates such as starch and sugars, to gaseous and liquid hydrocarbons such as methane and petroleum fractions, to petrochemicals such as methanol and ethanol.
Suitable nitrogen sources for bacterial growth include ammonia, ammonium salts, urea, nitrates, and the organic nitrogen in wastes.
A mineral nutrient supplement must be added to the bacterial culture medium to furnish nutrients that may not be present in natural waters in concentrations sufficient to support growth.
Grow best in slightly acid to neutral pH in the range 5 to 7.
Tolerate temperatures in the range 35 to 45 degrees C as heat is released during bacterial growth.
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18mbt025
ReplyDeleteNidhi Patel
Single-cell proteins are the dried cells of microorganism, which are used as protein supplement in human foods or animal feeds.
Mainly microorganisms like algae, fungi, yeast and bacteria, utilize inexpensive feedstock and wastes as sources of carbon and energy for growth to produce biomass, protein concentrate or amino acids. Since protein accounts for the quantitatively important part of the microbial cells, these microorganisms, also called single cell protein as natural protein concentrate.
• With increase in population and worldwide protein shortage the use of microbial biomass as food and feed is more highlighted.
• Although single cell protein has high nutritive value due to higher protein, vitamin, essential amino acids and lipid content, there is a doubt to be replaced to the conventional protein sources due to their high nucleic acid content and slower in digestibility. They also may be considered as foreign material by body, which may subsequently results in allergic reactions.
• The single-cell protein produced by ICI from methanol and ammonia using M. methylotrophus was referred to as ICI Pruteen. This SCP was exclusively used for animal feeding. ICI invested a huge amount (around £40 million) in 1979 and installed a continuous culture system for SCP production. This was the world’s largest continuous airlift fermenter. Unfortunately, the plant could not be operated for long due to economic reasons. But in the Middle East, due to high availability and low cost of methanol, the production of SCP appeared to be attractive.
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ReplyDeleteNidhi Patel
Virus classification is generally defined as the process of naming viruses and placing them into a taxonomic system.
Viruses are mainly classified by phenotypic characteristics, such as
1. Morphology, geometrical shape of their capsid (often a helix or an icosahedron) or the virus's structure (e.g. presence or absence of a lipid envelope).
2. Nucleic acid type:
• DNA viruses (divided into double-stranded DNA viruses and single-stranded DNA viruses),
•RNA viruses (divided into positive-sense single-stranded RNA viruses, negative-sense single-stranded RNA viruses and the much less common double-stranded RNA viruses),
•Reverse transcribing viruses (double-stranded reverse-transcribing DNA viruses and single-stranded reverse-transcribing RNA viruses including retroviruses).
3. Mode of replication
4. Host organisms they infect:animal viruses, plant viruses, fungal viruses, and bacteriophages (viruses infecting bacterium, which include the most complex viruses)
5. And the Type of Disease they cause. Currently, two main schemes are used for the classification of viruses: the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) system and Baltimore classification system, which places viruses into one of seven groups.
Metabolic engineering of Escherichia coli for de novo biosynthesis of vitamin B12
ReplyDeleteThe only known source of vitamin B12 (adenosylcobalamin) is from bacteria and archaea. Here, using genetic and metabolic engineering, we generate an Escherichia coli strain that produces vitamin B12 via an engineered de novo aerobic biosynthetic pathway. In vitro and/or in vivo analysis of genes involved in adenosylcobinamide phosphate biosynthesis from Rhodobacter capsulatus suggest that the biosynthetic steps from co(II)byrinic acid a,c-diamide to adocobalamin are the same in both the aerobic and anaerobic pathways. Finally, we increase the vitamin B12 yield of a recombinant E. coli strain by more than ∼250-fold to 307.00 µg via metabolic engineering and optimization of fermentation conditions. Beyond our demonstration of E. coli as a microbial biosynthetic platform for vitamin B12 production, our study offers an encouraging example of how the several dozen proteins of a complex biosynthetic pathway can be transferred between organisms to facilitate industrial production.
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ReplyDeleteNidhi Patel
List of Industrial Mirobial products.
Microbes can be used for production of certain chemicals like enzymes.
Enzymes are proteinaceous substances of biological origin which are capable of catalysing biochemical reactions without themselves undergoing any change.
1. Streptokinase (Tissue Plasminogen Activator or TPA):
It is an enzyme obtained from the cultures of some haemolytic bacterium Streptococcus and modified genetically to function as clot buster. It has fibrinolytic effect. Therefore, it helps in clearing blood clots inside the blood vessels through dissolution of intravascular fibrin.
2. Amylases:
They degrade starches. Amylases are obtained from Aspergillus, Rhizopus and Bacillus species. The enzymes are employed for:
(i) Softening and sweetening of bread,
(ii) Production of alcoholic beverages (e.g., beer, whisky) from starchy materials,
(iii) Clearing of turbidity in juices caused by starch,
(iv) Separation and desizing of textile fibres.
3. Cyclosporin A
It is an eleven membered cyclic oligopeptide obtained through fermentative activity of fungus Trichoderma polysporum. It has antifungal, anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive properties. It inhibits activation of T-cells and therefore, prevents rejection reactions in organ transplantation.
4. Statins:
They are products of fermentation activity of yeast Monasciis purpureus which resemble mevalovate and are competitive inhibitors of p-hydroxy-p-methylglutaryl or HMG CoA reductase. This inhibits cholesterol synthesis. Statins are, therefore, used in lowering blood cholesterol, e.g., lovastatin, pravastatin, simvastatin.
Microorganisms can also be successfully used for the commercial production of many of the vitamins. Vitamins are important micronutrients that are often precursors to enzymes, which all
living cells require to perform biochemical reactions. However, humans cannot produce many vitamins, so they have to be externally obtained by using vitamin‐producing microorganisms. The pseudo‐vitamins that are chemically produced, allow the production of foods with higher
levels of vitamins that could reduce unwanted side effects.
Probiotic bacteria, as well as
commensal bacteria found in the human gut, such as Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium, can de novo synthesize and supply vitamins to human body.
In humans, members of the gut
microbiota are able to synthesize vitamin K, as well as most of the water‐soluble B vitamins,such as cobalamin, folates, pyridoxine, riboflavin, and thiamine.
• Vitamin B12 is commercially produced by fermentation. It was first obtained as a byproduct of Streptomyces fermentation in the production of certain antibiotics (streptomycin, chloramphenicol, or neomycin). High concentrations of vitamin B12 are detected in sewage-sludge solids. Examples of microorganism producing vitamin B 12 is Propionibacterium freudenreichii, Pseudomonas denitrificans, Bacillus megaterium and Streptomyces olivaceus.
• Industrial production of riboflavin is mostly carried out with the organism, Ashbya gossypii by using simple sugars such as glucose and corn steep liquor.
• The organisms Blakeslea trispora, Phycomyces blakesleeanus and Choanephora cucurbitarum are most frequently used for the production of β– carotene, etc.
Q) What is DOTS?
ReplyDeleteAnd) DOTS stand for Directly Observed Treatment, Short Course.
•DOTS, also known as TB-DOTS.
•The technical strategy for DOTS was developed by Karel Styblo at the International Union against TB in the 1970s and 80s, primarily in Tanzania.
•DOTS or Directly Observed Treatment Short course is the internationally recommended strategy for TB control that has been recognized as a highly efficient and cost-effective strategy.
•DOTS have five main components:
1)Government commitment (including political will at all levels, and establishment of a centralized and prioritized system of TB monitoring, recording and training).
2)Case detection by sputum smear microscopy.
3)Standardized treatment regimen directly of six to nine months observed by a healthcare worker or community health worker for at least the first two months.
4)Drug supply
5)A standardized recording and reporting system that allows assessment of treatment results.
•DOTS involved treatment with a four drug regimen. These were isoniazid (INH), Rifampicin (Rif), Prazinamide (PZA) and Ethambutol (EMB) for 6-9 months.
•DOTS Plus refers to a DOTS program that adds components for MDR TB diagnosis, management, and treatment. The WHO-endorsed DOTS Plus program began in 2000. At that time, the Green Light Committee (GLC) was established to promote access to high quality second line drugs for appropriate use in TB control programs.
Application of microorganisms in medicinal field.
ReplyDeleteSoil-Dwelling Bacteria Kills Cancer:
One type of bacteria, called Clostridium sporogenes, may actually be used to deliver drugs in cancer therapy it has the ability to target tumors.When spores of the bacterium are injected into patients they will only grow in oxygen-depleted environments i.e. grow in solid tumours, where a specific bacterial enzyme is produced. An anti-cancer drug is injected separately into the patient in an inactive 'pro-drug' form. When the pro-drug reaches the site of the tumour, the bacterial enzyme activates the drug, allowing it to destroy only the tumour cells. The researchers have introduced a gene for a much-improved version of the enzyme into the C. sporogenes DNA. The improved enzyme can now be produced in far greater quantities in the tumour than previous versions, and is more efficient at converting the pro-drug into its active form.If the approach is successfully combined with more traditional approaches this could increase our chances to treat cancerous tumours.
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Question: Application of Microbiology.
ReplyDeleteAns: Environmental microbiology is the study of the composition and physiology of microbial communities in the environment. The environment in this case means the soil, water, air and sediments covering the planet and can also include the animals and plants that inhabit these areas. Environmental microbiology also includes the study of microorganisms that exist in artificial environments such as bioreactors.
Application of microbiology in Environment are as follows:
Oil Biodegradation:-
Petroleum oil is toxic and pollution of the environment by oil causes major ecological concern. Oil spills of coastal regions and the open sea are poorly containable and mitigation is difficult, however much of the oil can be eliminated by the hydrocarbon-degrading activities of microbial communities, in particular the hydrocarbonoclastic bacteria (HCB). These organisms can help remediate the ecological damage caused by oil pollution of marine habitats. HCB also have potential biotechnological applications in the areas of bioplastics and biocatalysis.
Degradation of Aromatic Compounds by Acinetobacter:-
Acinetobacter strains isolated from the environment are capable of the degradation of a wide range of aromatic compounds. The predominant route for the final stages of assimilation to central metabolites is through catechol or protocatechuate (3,4-dihydroxybenzoate) and the beta-ketoadipate pathway, and the diversity within the genus lies in the channelling of growth substrates, most of which are natural products of plant origin, into this pathway.
Analysis of Waste Biotreatment:-
Biotreatment, the processing of wastes using living organisms, is an environmentally friendly alternative to other options. Bioreactors have been designed to overcome the various limiting factors of biotreatment processes in highly controlled systems. This versatility in the design of bioreactors allows the treatment of a wide range of wastes under optimized conditions. It is vital to consider various microorganisms and a great number of analyses are often required.
Rashmi Malik
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Application of Microorganisms...
ReplyDeleteFrom Plant Disease to shampoo and salad Dressing:
Xanthomonas campestris is an aerobic, Gram-negative rod known to cause the black rot in plants. Host associated, over 20 different pathovars of X. campestris have been identified by their distinctive pathogenicity on a wide range of plants including crops and wild plants.
In contrast to its effects in plants, xanthaan has no adverse effects when ingested by humans. Consequently, xanthan can be used as a thickener in foods, such as dairy products and salad dressing, and in cosmetics such as cold creams and shampoos.
By pure culture fermentation, X. campestris can produce an extracellular polysaccharide known as xanthan gum that is commercially manufactured as a stabilizing agent used in many everyday products including salad dressing or toothpaste. X. campestris is a model organism for studying interactions between plant and bacteria. Due to the deficit in crops, further research of this bacteria is in progress in hopes of learning how to make plants resistant to this pathogen.
X. campestris ferments a stabilizing agent called xanthan gum that is used in many everyday products. It was first commercially produced at Kelco Company, a major pharmaceutical company. This polysaccharide is an ingredient in products like Kraft French dressing, Weight Watchers food, Wonder Bread products, and more. From carbohydrate fermentation by X. campestris, xanthan gum’s pseudoplastic, easily blended characteristic allows it to be used as a thickener by increasing viscosity of a liquid. In addition, xanthan gum also prolongs oil and gas wells even after production. Either pumped into the ground or using high pressure sandblasting, mixing water and xanthan gum into the wells will help thicken the liquid to release crude products of oil and cut through rocks in gas and oil wells. Xanthan gum costs $7 per pound compared to cornstarch for 89 cents per pound.
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application of microbes in bioremediation and few of the more common microbial products that are integral part of modern life:
ReplyDeletebioremediation: using Microbes to Clean up Pollutants In 1988, scientists began using microbes to clean up pollutants and toxic wastes produced by various industrial processes. For example, some bacteria can actually use pollutants as energy sources; others produce enzymes that break down toxins into less harmful substances. By using bacteria in these ways—a process known as bioremediation—toxins can be removed from underground wells, chemical spills, toxic waste sites, and oil spills, such as the massive oil spill from a British Petroleum offshore drilling rig in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010 . In addition, bacterial enzymes are used in drain cleaners to remove clogs without adding harmful chemicals to the environment. In some cases, microorganisms indigenous to the environment are used; in others, genetically modified microbes are used. Among the most commonly used microbes are certain species of bacteria of the genera Pseudomonas and Bacillus. Bacillus enzymes are also used in household detergents to remove spots from clothing.
Biopolymers Biopolymers are microbially produced polymers, primarily polysaccharides, used to modify the flow characteristics of liquids and to serve as gelling agents. These are employed in many areas of the pharmaceutical and food industries. Biopolymers include (1) dextrans, which are used as blood expanders and absorbents; (2) Erwinia polysaccharides used in paints; (3) polyesters, derived from Pseudomonas oleovorans, which are used for specialty plastics; (4) cellulose microfibrils, produced by an Acetobacter strain, that serve as a food thickener; (5) polysaccharides such as scleroglucan used by the oil industry as drilling mud additives; and (6) xanthan polymers, which have a variety of applications as food additives as well to enhance oil by thickening drilling mud. This use of xanthan gum, produced by Xanthomonas campestris, represents a large market for this microbial product.
Biosurfactants: Biosurfactants are amphiphilic molecules; that is, they possess both hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions. Thus they partition at the interface between fluids that differ in polarity, such as oil and water. For this reason, they are used for emulsification, increasing detergency, wetting, and phase dispersion, as well as solubilization. These properties are especially important in bioremediation, oil spill dispersion, and enhanced oil recovery. The most widely used microbially produced biosurfactants are glycolipids. These are carbohydrates that bear long-chain aliphatic acids or hydroxy aliphatic acids. They can be isolated as extracellular products from a variety of microorganisms, including pseudomonads and yeasts.
Organic Acids Simply reading the ingredient list on most processed foods will illustrate the widespread use of the organic acids such as citric, acetic, and lactic acids. These acids are principally used as preservatives. Organic acid production illustrates how the concentration of trace elements can influence product yield Citric acid fermentation involves limiting the amounts of trace metals such as manganese and iron to stop Aspergillus niger growth at a specific point. The medium often is treated with ion exchange resins to ensure low and controlled concentrations of available metals. Generally, high sugar concentrations (15 to 18%) are used, and copper has been found to counteract the inhibition of citric acid production by iron. This reflects the regulation of glycolysis and the tricarboxylic acid cycle (recall that citric acid is a constituent of the TCA cycle). After the active growth phase, when the substrate level is high, citrate synthase activity increases and the activities of aconitase and isocitrate dehydrogenase decrease. This results in citric acid accumulation and excretion by the stressed microorganism.
Enzyme production:-
ReplyDelete1 Rennet:
It is an extract from the stomach of calf that contains enzyme rennin. Rennet or chymosin is now being obtained from Mucor and Endothio species. Withania and fig (ficin) also yield similar product.
2 Lactases:
They are obtained from Saccharomyces fragilis and Torula cremoris. The enzymes convert lactose (milk sugar) into lactic acid. Lactic, acid can coagulate milk protein, casein. Lactases prevent crystals formation (sandiness) in dairy preparations like ice-cream and processed cheese.
3. Streptokinase (Tissue Plasminogen Activator or TPA):
It is an enzyme obtained from the cultures of some haemolytic bacterium Streptococcus and modified genetically to function as clot buster. It has fibrinolytic effect. Therefore, it helps in clearing blood clots inside the blood vessels through dissolution of intravascular fibrin.
4. Pectinases:
They are obtained commercially from Byssochlamys fulvo. Along-with proteases, they are used in clearing of fruit juices. Other uses are in retting of fibres and preparation of green coffee.
5. Lipases:
They are lipid dissolving enzymes that are obtained from Candida lipolytica and Geotrichum candidum. Lipases are added in detergents for removing oily stains from laundry. They are also used in flavouring cheese.
MEDICINE:-
Species of the bacterial genus Streptomyces alone produce more than 500 different antibiotics, including cycloheximide, cycloserine, erythromycin, kanamycin, lincomycin, neomycin, nystatin, streptomycin, and tetracycline. Other antibiotics are made by Bacillus bacteria and fungi, such as Penecillium.
MAKING AND BREAKING DOWN BIODEGRADABLE PLASTICS:-
Most of the plastic used today is synthetically made from petroleum and is extremely resistant to degradation. The best kind of biodegradable plastics are the ones made by bacteria because they can also be broken down by bacteria. These contain either polylactide (PLA), made as a product of fermentation, or polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs), made by bacteria as storage compounds.
Unfortunately, biodegradable bacterially produced plastics haven’t yet been able to compete with the synthetically made ones because oil is still cheaper than the sugar needed to feed the bacteria.
Chemical
Synthesis of amino acids and organic solvents can also be made using microbes. The synthesis of essential amino acids such as are L-Methionine, L-Lysine, L-Tryptophan and the non-essential amino acid L-Glutamic acid are used today mainly for feed, food, and pharmaceutical industries. The production of these amino acids is due to Corynebacterium glutamicum and fermentation. C.glutamicum was engineered to be able to produce L-lysine and L-Glutamic acid is large quantities. L-Glutamic acid had a high demand for production because this amino acid is used to produce Monosodium glutamate (MSG) a food flavoring agent. In 2012 the total production of L-Glutamic acid was 2.2 million tons and is produced using a submerged fermentation technique inoculated with C.glutamicum. L-Lysine was originally produced from diaminopimelic acid (DAP) by E.coli, but once the C.glutamicum was discovered for the production of L-Glutamic acid.This organism and other autotrophs were later modified to yield other amino acids such as lysine, aspartate, methionine, isoleucine and threonine. L-Lysine is used for the feeding of pigs and chicken, as well as to treat nutrient deficiency, increase energy in a patient, and sometimes used to treat viral infections. L-Tryptophan is also produced through fermentation and by Corynebacterium and E.coli, though the production is not as large as the rest of the amino acids it is still produced for pharmaceutical purposes since it can be converted and used to produce neurotransmitters.
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Therapeutic Products from Microbes:-
ReplyDeleteMicrobes as immuno-suppresants-
Cyclosporin A was originally introduced as a narrow-spectrum antifungal peptide produced by the mold, Tolypocladium nivenum (originally classified as Trichoderma polysporum and later as Tolypocladium inflatum), by aerobic fermentation. They are used in heart, liver
Other important transplant agents include sirolimus (rapamycin) and tacrolimus (FK506), which are produced by actinomycetes. Rapamycin is especially useful in kidney transplants as it lacks the nephrotoxicity seen with cyclosporin A and tacrolimus. It is a macrolide.
Tacrolimus (FK506) was discovered in 1987 in Japan. It is produced by Streptomyces tsukubaensis. It was approximately 100 times more active as an immunosuppressive than cyclosporin A. It was approved by the FDA for use as an immunosuppressant in liver transplantation. Furthermore, its use has been extended to include bone marrow, cornea, heart, intestines, kidney, lung, pancreas, trachea, small bowel, skin and limb transplants and for the prevention of graft-vs-host disease. Topically, it is also used against atopic dermatitis, a widespread skin disease.
Microbes for irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)
is the most common functional gastrointestinal disorder that results in abdominal pain, altered bowel habits and irregular stool characteristics . Lactobacillus salivarius or Bifidobacterium infantis found significant improvements in typical IBS symptoms with the administration of probiotics. Commonly reported improvements were reductions in bloating, flatulence, speed of colonic transit and abdominal pain. Intestinal micro-organisms play various roles in human health such as complex food digestion, metabolizing drugs, detoxifying toxic compounds, producing essential vitamins and preventing colonization of pathogens. Most of the micro-organisms found in the GI tract are anaerobic bacteria, which are uncultivable under standard laboratory conditions. The type and number of bacteria in the GI tract varies depending on age, gender, geographical origin and environmental factors, such as diet and dietary supplements . Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes are the dominant beneficial bacteria present in the normal human GI tract, and the latter was reported in lower.
Microbes as source of anti-fungals
The pneumocandins have been successfully used to develop an antifungal drug that has been recently approved by the FDA. This semi-synthetic pneumocandin, caspofungin acetate, is an aza-substituted derivative of pneumocandin B0. Pneumocandins are natural products derived from the fermentation of the fungus Glarea lozoyensis . The introduction of additional amino groups in the peptide ring of pneumocandin B0 increased the solubility of the molecule and the potency against fungal pathogens by two orders of magnitude. The compound has been shown to be effective in animal models of disseminated candidiasis,aspergillosis,coccidiomycosis and pneumonia caused by Pneumocystis carinii. The clinical trials have demonstrated good tolerance of the compound and its efficacy in the treatment of oropharyngeal and oesophageal candidiasis, as well as in invasive aspergillosis. Cancidas has recently been approved by the FDA for use against invasive aspergillosis, refractory to, or tolerant of other therapies.
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KRUPA S. PATEL
ReplyDelete18MBT042
Question: Application of Microbiology.
Ans: Industrial Application:
Industrial Microbiology also plays an important role in the preservation of the environment. Hence, in many cases, Microbiology and environmental Biotechnology go hand in hand and both are interdependent on each other.
1. Fungal removal of pitch in paper pulp manufacturing
• Extractives from wood and other lignocellulose material referred to as wood resin includes alkanes, fatty alcohols, fatty acids, resin acids, sterols, other terpenoids conjugated steroids and waxes. These lipophilic compounds cause the pitch deposits along the pulp and process of manufacturing papers.
• Pre-treatment of the wood with fungi to degrade some of the wood extractives before pulping Basidiomycete fungi and Ophiostoma Species are widely used for this purpose. When applied to wood chip piles, this fungus has been particularly effective in degrading triglycerides and fatty acids in both soft woods and hard woods.
• Result of this application 50% deduction in the pitch content of soft woods with less then of 5%loss of woody mass and effluent biotoxicity was reduced 11 to 14 fold compare with untreated controls. White rot basidiomycete to degrade the sterols esters and waxes.
Environmental Application:
1. Bioremediation: -
The other process of removing the toxic solid wastes in the land and water is bioremediation. Bioremediation involves the utilization of the indigenous microorganisms by enhancing their growth by the addition of specific nutrients in the soil and water in order to detoxify the wastes present in situ.
The detection of microbes with the capacity to degrade various environmental pollutants is quite interesting for it can be used to treat the polluted environment (Bioremediation). The microbes used in bioremediation are either degraders by nature or genetically engineered to degrade the pollutants.
Listed below are some of the microbes employed in bioremediation and the type of pollutant they act upon.
Pseudomonas putida – Toluene, Naphthalene
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Actinobacteria, Cyanobacteria, Flavobacteria, Staphylococcacea – oil spills
Dechloromonas aromatica – Aromatic compounds, perchlorate
Acinetobacter – Aromatic compounds
Nitrosomonas europaea, Nitrobacter hamburgensis, Paracoccus denitrificans – Acts on ammonia, nitrite and nitrate compounds
Phanerochaete chrysosporium – Pesticides, Poly aromatic hydro carbons, dioxins, dyes, cyanides, nitro-based explosives
Psudomonas Species (Pseudomonas A3, Pseudomonas putida, Pseudomonas aeruginosa) and Serratia marinorubra - Fungicide
Deinococcus radiodurans – Heavy metals (This organism is genetically engineered to act upon ionic mercury based nuclear pollution). One of the research studies states the efficiency of species like Enterobacter, Stenotrophomonas, Chryseobacterium, Ochrobacterium in the removal of heavy metals like Copper, cadmium, cobalt and chromium respectively.
Geobacter metallireducens – Uranium
Bacillus species and Serratia merinorubra- Used to treat effluent from textile industries. These species acts upon the azo reactive dye present in the effluent and thus decolourizes the effluent.
Trichoderma viride – Effluents from industries
2.Microbial Desulphurisation of coal: -
The microbes are now being used for the desulphurization of the fuels like coal thus helping largely in the prevention of formation of pollutants like SO2, which are formed during the burning of coal. Upto 90% of removal of sulphur can be achieved.
q.= Who Found KURU Cause by cannibalism by visiting village?
ReplyDeleteANS.
Michael Alpers, linked kuru with cannibalism by living deep in New Guinea’s kuru heartland.
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ReplyDeleteChemical application:
Synthesis of amino acids and organic solvents can also be made using microbes. The synthesis of essential amino acids such as are L-Methionine, L-Lysine, L-Tryptophan and the non-essential amino acid L-Glutamic acid are used today mainly for feed, food, and pharmaceutical industries. The production of these amino acids is due to Corynebacterium glutamicum and fermentation.C.glutamicum was engineered to be able to produce L-lysine and L-Glutamic acid is large quantities.[8] L-Glutamic acid had a high demand for production because this amino acid is used to produce Monosodium glutamate (MSG) a food flavoring agent. In 2012 the total production of L-Glutamic acid was 2.2 million tons and is produced using a submerged fermentation technique inoculated with C.glutamicum. L-Lysine was originally produced from diaminopimelic acid (DAP) by E.coli, but once the C.glutamicum was discovered for the production of L-Glutamic acid.[8]This organism and other autotrophs were later modified to yield other amino acids such as lysine, aspartate, methionine, isoleucine and threonine.[8]L-Lysine is used for the feeding of pigs and chicken, as well as to treat nutrient deficiency, increase energy in a patient, and sometimes used to treat viral infections. L-Tryptophan is also produced through fermentation and byCorynebacterium and E.coli, though the production is not as large as the rest of the amino acids it is still produced for pharmaceutical purposes since it can be converted and used to produce neurotransmitters.[8]
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ReplyDeleteQuestion: applications of microbiology
Making faster and smarter computers:
The Archaeobacterium Halobacterium halobium grows in nature in solar evaporation ponds having high concentration of salts. Such salty ponds are found around San Francisco Bay located on the Western coast of USA.
It has been found that the plasma membrane of Halobacterium halobium fragments into two fractions, when the cell is broken down. These two fractions are red and purple. The purple fraction is important in making computer parts (chips). The purple colour is due to a protein which is 75% of purple membrane and has been referred to as bacteriorhodopsin.
Robert Birge at Syracuse University’s Centre of Molecular Electronics has grown Halobacerium halobium in 5-litre batches and has extracted the protein bacteriorhodopsin from the cells and developed the computer chips which are made up of a thin layer of bacteriorhodopsin.
The chips so made from the bacterial source can store more information than the conventional silicon chips and process the information faster more like a human brain. The only drawback is that one needs to store the protein chips at -4°C. But Birge believes that this problem will be overcome soon.
applications of microbes:
ReplyDeleteOIL AND BIOFUELS
oily is a bacterium from the genus Alcanivorax Oily and others like oily may be used to help clean up some oil spills.When oily eats the oil it breaks down oil into relatively less harmful compounds.oily was all about dealing with oil extracted from the earth ,but it has brethren that are all about producing oil instead of munching it up and not just any oil.these is a biofuel.
treat waste water by microbial fuel cells
microbial fuel cell is used to treat waste water and generate electricity.microorganisms utilize substrate from waste water for their metabolism and produce electron and protons and water as end product.
microorganisms are also used in bioremediation studies.
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Deletekhushbu patel
single cell protein
ReplyDeleteSingle-cell proteins are the dried cells of microorganism, which are used as protein supplement in human foods or animal feeds. Microorganisms like algae, fungi, yeast and bacteria, utilize inexpensive feedstock and wastes as sources of carbon and energy for growth to produce biomass, protein concentrate or amino acids. Since protein accounts for the quantitatively important part of the microbial cells, these microorganisms, also called single cell protein as natural protein concentrate. With increase in population and worldwide protein shortage the use of microbial biomass as food and feed is more highlighted. Although single cell protein has high nutritive value due to higher protein, vitamin, essential amino acids and lipid content, there is a doubt to be replaced to the conventional protein sources due to their high nucleic acid content and slower in digestibility. They also may be considered as foreign material by body, which may subsequently results in allergic reactions.
Yeast was the first microorganism whose importance as animal feed supplement was recognized almost a century ago. During World War I, Germany replaced half of imported protein sources by yeast. Pruteen was the first commercial single cell protein used as animal feed additive. From a nutritional viewpoint, Nucleic Acids (NA) content in SCP is one of the main factors hindering its utilization as food. Excessive intakes of NA lead to uric acid precipitation, causing health disorders, such as gout or kidney stone formation.
So, in human their NA contents must be reduced below 2%. Several technologies have been reported to reduce the NA content of microbial cells, including both chemical and enzymatic procedures. Chemical and enzymatic methods have disadvantages . Various microorganisms used for the production of SCP are bacteria (Cellulomonas, Alcaligenes, etc.), algae (Spirulina, Chlorella, etc.), molds (Trichoderma, Fusarium, Rhizopus, etc.) and yeast (Candida, Saccharomyces, etc.). Microorganisms can utilize a variety of substrate like agricultural wastes and effluents, industrial wastes, natural gas like methane, etc. that also help in decomposing pollutan
A variety of microorganisms and substrate are used to produce single cell proteins. Yeast is suitable for single cell protein production because of its superior nutritional quality . The supplementation cereals with single cell proteins, especially yeast, make them as good as animal proteins. The necessary factor considered for use of SCP is the demonstration of the absence of toxic and carcinogenic compounds originated from the substrates, biosynthesized by the microorganisms or formed during processing. High nucleic acid content and low cell wall digestibility are two of the most important factors limiting nutritional and toxicological value of yeast for animal or human consumption . As constituents of nucleic acid, purine compounds in human diet mostly metabolized to yield uric acid whose high concentration may lead to gout or renal stones. However, nucleic acid is not a toxic component and it causes only physiological effects at higher levels like any other essential dietary ingredients taken in larger amounts. It has been calculated that 100 lbs of yeast will produce 250 tons of proteins in 24 h. Algae grown in ponds can produce 20 tons (dry weight) of protein, per acre, per year.
Rapid automated testing of probiotic organism:
ReplyDeleteDefinition and Health benefits of Probiotics: The World Health Organization’s 2001 definition of probiotics is “live micro-organisms which, when administered in adequate amounts, confer health benefits on the host”.[1] This definition, although widely adopted, is not acceptable to the European Food Safety Authority because it embeds a health claim which is not measurable.[2] Etymologically, the term appears to be a composite of the Latin preposition pro (“for”) and the Greek βιωτικος(biotic), the latter deriving from the noun βιος (bios, “life”) [3]
Health benefits: Some digestive disease specialists are recommending the use of probiotic organisms to help in the treatment of disorders that frustrate conventional medicine, such as irritable bowel syndrome. Since the mid-1990s, clinical studies have established that probiotic therapy can help in the treatment of several gastrointestinal ills, may delay the development of allergies in children
Examples of Probiotic Organisms: There are hundreds of strains of probiotic bacteria. The most commonly used organisms include Lactobacillus sp. (such as L. acidophilus, L. casei, L. fermentum , L. rhamnosus) Bifidobacterium sp, (such as B. Bifidum, B. lactis and B. longum), Streptococcus thermophilus, Bacillus coagulans,and Enterococcus faecium.
Potency Testing: Probiotics offer a broad range of health benefits. As with any supplement, the efficacy of a probiotic depends on dosage. Essentially the titer of live organisms is the critical part in determining potency. Recommending an adequate dose for an individual patient requires clear knowledge of the potency of a product. Probiotic potency is specified as the numbers of viable cells of the beneficiary organism. Confidence in the accuracy of this number is essential for successful and consistent clinical results.
BioLumix Methodology for Potency Testing:
A calibration curve is generated to easily relate the number of colony forming units determined using the plate count method to the detection times (DT) in the BioLumix instrument. These calibration curves are embedded into the instrument software and are used to access the number of probiotic organisms present in the product sample for individual organisms. An example is shown in the Graph for the Lactobacillus acidophilus. Currently, individual calibration curves are available for the following organisms: L. casei, L. acidophilus, L. rhamnosus, L. bulgarus, B. coagulans, B. longum, B. bifidum, E. feacalis, and S. thermophilus. The procedure used to test sample cultures involves a single 1:10,000 dilution of the sample followed by the addition of 0.1 ml to the appropriate test vial. Organism growth may occur rapidly, often in less than 24 hr, and the BioLumix instrument generates an estimate of the cfu per gram of sample. This is a much more rapid method than the traditional plate methods that often takes 3-7 days for Lactobacillus species. Using the BioLumix rapid method can be much less expensive than traditional plate methods for Lactobacillus species as these organisms often require specialty media under conditions of low oxygen (candle jars).
Microbial contamination: Good manufacturing Practices must be applied in the manufacture of probiotic containing products. Contamination of probiotic products with undesirable microorganisms is possible in uncontrolled fermentation and during handling. Therefore, most probiotic batches need to be tested for indicator organisms such as coliforms and to also show the absence of potentially harmful organisms such as E. coli, Staphylococcus and Salmonella.
BioLumix Methodology for Microbial Contamination: The BioLumix simplified automated system can detect indicator organisms and objectionable organisms, if present, in a fraction of the time of traditional methods, with significantly less hands-on time. The system offers a wide variety of rapid assays for samples, including assays to detect yeast & molds, coliforms, E. coli, Staphylococcus, Pseudomonas and Salmonella.
Applications of microorganisms in sewage treatment.
ReplyDeleteBiological wastewater treatments employ microorganisms to remove organic matter from water.Wastewater treatment plants depend heavily on the work of microorganisms.
Members of the Nitrosomonas genus is a gram negative bacterium responsible for the first stage of nitrification in sewage. They oxidize ammonium into nitrite. This bacterium has a optimum pH of 6-9 and nitrify optimally at 20-30°C.Members of the Nitrobacter genus is a gram negative bacterium responsible for the second stage of nitrification in the sewage. It oxidizes nitrite to nitrate using oxygen as a terminal electron acceptor. The bacteria has an optimum pH of 6~8, and an optimum temperature of 0~40°C. Members of Pseudomonas genus is a gram negative denitrifying bacteria that use the chemical energy in organic matter to reduce nitrate into dinitrogen gas. Also, members of the bacteroidetes phylum are the gram negative bacteria responsible for the anaerobic fermentation of the solid sludge.
Wastewater treatment can also provide a great source for alternative energy if the anaerobic bacteria are handled correctly.
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Top Probiotic Foods
ReplyDeleteYogurt and kefir (dairy or plant-based)
Sauerkraut
Kimchi
Kvass (a fermented beet drink)
Natto
Miso
Kombucha
Raw cheese from goat’s or sheep’s milk
Any other naturally fermented food
Top Prebiotic Foods
Asparagus
Onions
Garlic
Leeks
Raw honey
Chicory root
Jicama
Barely ripe plantains and bananas
Sprouted whole grains
Seeds
Berries
Benefits......
Bacillus subtilis: Helps fight autoimmune disease and leaky gut.
Saccharomyces boulardii: Helps treat acne and inflammatory bowel diseases (IBS).
Bifidobacterium infantis: Alleviates IBS symptoms, diarrhea, and constipation.
Bacillus coagulans: Improves nutrient absorption and reduces inflammation and symptoms of arthritis.
Bifidobacterium bifidum: Supports production of vitamins in the gut and prevents diarrhea.
Lactobacillus casei: Helps fight infections.
Lactobacillus acidophilus: Relieves gas and bloating and reduces lactose intolerance.
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Applications of industrial microbiology
ReplyDelete1.Soya sauce is prepared by mixing saoked and steamed soyabeans with crushed wheat and incoculating with Aspergillus soyae or Aspergillus oryzae.
2.Cephalosporins C is made as fermentation product of cephalosporin acremonium.
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Application of food microbiology
ReplyDeleteMicrobes used in the Preparation of Cheese:
Many modern cheeses are made with preselected cultures, consisting of only a few types of microbe, but many traditional cheeses are inoculated using whey or other products from previous batches, which means that they can be made with dozens of types of microbe.
This microbial wealth is among the many reasons that traditional cheeses can be so much more complex than modern, controlled-inoculation cheeses.
Molds:
Molds are multicellular filamentous fungi whose growth on foods is usually readily recognized by their fuzzy or cottony appearance. They are mainly responsible for food spoilage at room temperature 25- 30oC and low pH, and have minimum moisture requirement. Molds can rapidly grow on grains and corns when these products are stored under moist conditions. Molds require free oxygen for growth and hence grow on the surface of contaminated food.Only two species of blue mold, P. roquefortiand P. glaucum, give rise to the unique flavor and texture of the hundreds of blue cheese which are revered throughout the world.White molds, which are found on the outside of all types of soft-ripened cheeses, are subspecies of P. camembertii (also called P. candidum).
Molds also find their use in manufacturing of different foods and food products. They are used in ripening of various types of food products as cheese (e.g. Roquefort,Camembert).
Propionic Acid Bacteria:
These bacteria, and specifically Propionobacter shermanii, are able to digest acetic acid and convert it to sharp, sweaty-smelling propionic acid and carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide is what gives Emmental and other Swiss cheeses their characteristic "holes", and the propionic acid contributes to their complex, especially sharp bouquet. Interestingly, several species of propionibacteria inhabit human skin, and help produce "unwashed" odors.
Smear bacteria:
The most notorious are the smear bacteria, which are responsible for the room-clearing ability of Epoisses, Münster, and Limburger. These smear bacteria are officially known as Brevibacter linens. They can't live in acidic or deoxygenated environments, and so cannot survive in the interior of cheeses. Since they need salty (up to 15%), moist environments to grow, they must be encouraged to do so by continual washing or wiping of the cheese surfaces, a process which results in the development of the characteristic red "smear" surface of so-called "washed-rind" cheeses. B. linens excels at breaking down proteins into, well, stinky odor compounds, producing oniony or garlicky, fishy, and sweaty aromas.
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Q Application of microorganisms
ReplyDeleteA
BIOSURFACTANT: Biosurfactants are amphiphilic compounds produced in living spaces or excreted extracellular hydrophobic and hydrophilic moieties that confer on the organism the ability to accumulate between fluid phases thus reducing surface and interfacial tension. Biosurfactants are produced by several microorganisms which include Acinetobacter sp., Bacillus sp, Candida antartica, Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Biosurfactants have several applications:
A)ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY: Biosurfactants have strong antibacterial, antifungal and antivirus activity; these surfactants play the role of anti adhesive agents to pathogens making them useful for treating many diseases as well as its use as therapeutic and probiotic agent. A good example is the biosurfactant produced by marine B. circulans that had a potent antimicrobial activity against Gram positive and Gram negative pathogens
B)BIOSURFACTANT AS BIOPESTICIDE: Lipopeptide biosurfactants produced by several bacteria exhibit insecticidal activity against fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster and hence are promising to be used as biopesticide
BIOSYNTHESIS OF NANOPARTICLES BY MICROORGANISMS:
Variety of inorganic nanoparticles with well-defined chemical composition, size, and morphology has been synthesized by using different microorganism. Applications of biosynthesized nanoparticles i.e. inorganic nanoparticles including metallic nanoparticles, oxide nanoparticles, sulfide nanoparticles and other typical nanoparticles are used in drug delivery, cancer treatment, gene therapy and DNA analysis, antibacterial agents, biosensors, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).
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Ques : Applications of Microorganisms
ReplyDeleteAns : Microbially Induced Calcite Precipitation (MICP) is a viable technique which can be applied to various applications.
This technique uses urease producing bacteria to facilitate calcite precipitation to bind soil particles and improve its strength.
Sporosarcina pasteurii has been proven to have high urease productivity and it has been used extensively. This technique is feasible for sustainable construction materials such as pavers, namely bio-pavers.
The same principle of MICP is used in Biogrouting –As hydraulic erosion is one of the main causes of failure within earth dams and embankments so one of the method to reduce or remove this erosion is through biogrouting where bacteria injected into the soil produce urease enzyme, which converts urea to ammonium and carbonate, causing calcite precipitation that binds soil grains together.
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Q: Application of microbiology.
ReplyDeleteA novel alkaline protease from alkaliphilic Idiomarina sp.c9_1 with potential application for eco friendly enzymatic dehairing in the leather industry.
Influence of dietary supplementation with Bacillus licheniformis and Saccharomyces cerevisiae as alternatives to monensin on growth performance, antioxidant, immunity,ruminal fermentation and microbial diversity of fattening lambs.
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Question:- Application of microorganism
ReplyDeleteAns:-The electronic waste, major solid waste is spent Li-ion and Ni-Cd batteries used in digital cameras, cellular phones, and laptop computers. Co and Li leaching from spent Li-ion battery waste using pure cultures of Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans.Bioleaching of spent lithium-ion batteries with mixed cultures of acidophilic sulfur oxidizers and iron oxidizers was carried out. The spent batteries lacked iron or sulfur, and most of the components were present in the oxide form. These studies indicate that the mechanism of metal dissolution varies with different metal species and energy source types.
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Que: application of microbiology.
ReplyDeleteAns :Microorganisms have evolved as a potential alternate source of energy. Microorganisms are used to produce biofuels like biodiesel, bioalcohol and also microbial fuel cell. E.g. Algae.
Que : Strain of bacteria which degrade petroleum hydrocarbons
DeleteAns : Microbial degradation is the major and ultimate natural mechanism by which one can cleanup the petroleum hydrocarbon pollutants from the environment.The recognition of biodegraded petroleum-derived aromatic hydrocarbons in marine sediments was reported by Jones et al. They studied the extensive biodegradation of alkyl aromatics in marine sediments which occurred prior to detectable biodegradation of n-alkane profile of the crude oil and the microorganisms, namely, Arthrobacter, Burkholderia, Mycobacterium, Pseudomonas, Sphingomonas, and Rhodococcus were found to be involved for alkylaromatic degradation. Microbial degradation of petroleum hydrocarbons in a polluted tropical stream in Lagos, Nigeria was reported by Adebusoye et al. Nine bacterial strains, namely, Pseudomonas fluorescens, P. aeruginosa, Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus sp., Alcaligenes sp., Acinetobacter lwoffi, Flavobacterium sp., Micrococcus roseus, and Corynebacterium sp. were isolated from the polluted stream which could degrade crude oil.
Que- Application of microorganisms.
ReplyDeleteAns:Extremophile archaea species are of particular interest due to the enzymes and molecules they produce that allow them to sustain life in extreme climates, including very high or low temperatures, extremely acid or base solutions, or when exposed to other harmful factors, including radiation. Specific enzymes which have been isolated and used for industrial purposes include thermostable DNA polymerases from the Pyrococcus furiosus. This type of polymerase isa common tool in molecular biology; it is capable of withstanding the high temperatures that are necessary to complete polymerase chain reactions. Additional enzymes isolated from Pyrococcus speciesinclude specific types of amylases and galactosidases which allow food processing to occur at high temperatrues as well.
Corynebacteria are characterized by their diverse origins. They are found in numerous ecological niches and are most often used in industry for the mass production of amino acids and nutritional factors. In particular, the amino acids produced by Corynebacterium glutamicum include the amino acid glutamic acid.
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Q: Application of microorganisms
ReplyDeleteA:. The prospection of lactic acid bacteria present in products fermented with various cultures has created new sources of probiotics and the discovery of strains that can improve the quality of fermented products . Probiotics are living microorganisms that have been linked to host health benefits . Currently,the best known probiotic microorganisms are those belonging to genera lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium.
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Q: single cell protein
ReplyDeleteA: Heterogeneity of the cellular system
Q: single cell protein
ReplyDeleteA: Heterogeneity of the cellular system
Q:single cell protein
ReplyDeleteA: Heterogeneity of cellular systems has been widely recognised but only recently have tools become available that allow probing of genes and proteins in single cells to understand it while the advancement in single cell genomic analysis has been greatly aided by the power of amplification techniques analysis of proteins in single cells has proven to be more challenging however ,recent advances in multi parameter ,flow cytometry, microscopy and other techniques have made it possible to measure wide variety of proteins.
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Delete18MBT033
ReplyDeleteApplications of Microorganisms
BIOSENSORS
it is a rapidly developing area of biotechnology in which living microorganisms or their enzymes or organelles are linked with electrodes , and biological reactions are converted into electrical currents.
Naturally occurring photosynthetic microorganisms are the focus of an invention to rapidly detect contamination of water supplies.
it involves tissue based biosensors such as green algae or cyanobacteria for direct detection of chemical warfare agents. These living sensors are always present and continuously renewed by flowing water. As water samples pass through the cell, any changes that negatively affect photosynthetic capability will be detected. With a compact optoelectronic recording system, a cell modem and encrypted communications, coded messages can be transmitted to a remote location where appropriate action can be taken.
the biosensors are also used to measure specific component in beer , monitor pollutants , detect flavor in foods ,and study environmental processes such as changes in biofilm concentration gradients.
What is immobilization? Name the methods used for microbial cell immobilization.
ReplyDeleteImmobilization is the method of entrapping/attaching the microbial or cells in a suitable matrix.
Different methods such as encapsulation, gel entrapment, covalent bonding, cross linking and adsorption is carried out
to prepare immobilized cells.
Q. Industrial Microbiology Applications..!
ReplyDeleteAns.
Many industrial microbiologists/biotechnologists are responsible for the discovery, development, or implementation of certain processes and the quality of resultant products:
ANTIBIOTICS/ANTIMICROBIALS:-
Both natural and chemically enhanced microbial products can be used to control human, animal, and plant diseases. Using traditional genetics or recombinant DNA techniques, the microorganisms can be modified to improve the yield or action of antibiotics and other antimicrobial agents. New research directions are aimed at discovering microbial metabolites (with pharmacological activities) useful in the treatment of hypertension, obesity, coronary heart disease, cancer, and inflammation.
VACCINES:-
Vaccines are essential to protect humans and animals from microbial diseases. Recombinant DNA technology has allowed for the production of vaccines that offer protection without risk of infection (e.g., hepatitis B vaccine). Industrial microbiologists are actively involved in the development of these new vaccines.
HEALTH-CARE PRODUCTS:-
The development and production of diagnostic assays that utilize monoclonal antibody or DNA probe technology are essential in the manufacture of health-care products such as rapid tests for strep throat, pregnancy, and AIDS. Microorganisms are also used to produce human or animal biologicals such as insulin, growth hormone, antibodies, and components for cosmetics. The industrial microbiologist/biotechnologist may screen new microbial sources (e.g., marine or cave-dwelling microorganisms) for their ability to produce new pharmaceuticals or develop new diagnostic assays.
FOOD/BEVERAGES PRODUCED BY MICROBIAL ACTIVITY:-
Yogurt, cheese, chocolate, butter, pickles, sauerkraut, soy sauce, food supplements (such as vitamins and amino acids), food thickeners (produced from microbial polysaccharides), alcohol (beer, whiskeys, and wines), sausages, and silage from animals are a small sample of products of microbial activity. Industrial microbiologists/biotechnologists may be involved in producing concentrated microbial inocula for fermentations or the maintenance of fermentation systems utilized in production facilities. They may also take part in identifying the organisms involved in and maintaining proprietary culture collections.
There is a great deal of microbiology in the food and beverage industries. Some examples are:
Food/Beverages Cured or Improved by Microbial Activity: Production of coffee, tea, cocoa, summer sausage, vanilla, cheese, olives, and tobacco all require microbial activity and a microbiologist to insure product quality.
Food Flavoring Agents and Preservatives: Organic acids, such as citric, malic, and ascorbic acids, and monosodium glutamate are microbial products commonly used in foods.
Foods: Mushrooms, truffles, and some red and green algae are consumed directly. Yeasts are used in food supplements for humans and animals.
AGRICULTURE:-
Conventional, recombinant DNA and monoclonal antibody techniques are used to improve microbial inoculants which serve as fertilizer supplements by fixing atmospheric nitrogen to improve plant yields and to serve as plant pest controls. All of these require a microbiologist to insure product efficacy and quality.
ENZYMES:-
Industrial applications of enzymes include the production of cheese, the clarification of apple juice, the development of more efficient laundry detergents, pulp and paper production, and the treatment of sewage. These processes have been dramatically enhanced by the use of recombinant DNA techniques to design enzymes and increased activity, stability, and specificity.
WASTE AND WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT:-
The production of clean water and the destruction of waste material are important for preserving the environment and providing drinkable water. The industrial microbiologist is directly involved in developing microbial strains to detoxify wastes of industrial, agricultural, or human origin.
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ReplyDeleteQ. What is immobilization? What are the methods used for microbial cell immobilization..!
ReplyDeleteAns. The technique used for the physical or chemical fixation of cells, organelles, enzymes, or other proteins (e.g. monoclonal antibodies ) onto a solid support, into a solid matrix or retained by a membrane, in order to increase their stability and make possible their repeated or continued use is called immobilization.
Gel entrapment, Encapsulation ,Adsorption/Adhesion etc methods for to prepare immobilized cells.
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